IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL. 9, NO. 6, DECEMBER 1993
825
Short Papers
measured velocity. This phenomenon has been illustrated in simulations in [6]-[8] and actual experimentation in [Y], [lo], [21].
Harry Berghuis, Romeo Ortega, and Henk Nijmeijer
Recently, a number of adaptive schemes that do not suffer from
this velocity measurement problem have been proposed by Bayard
and Wen [ l l ] . However, a drawback of the Bayard and Wen
Abstract-A globally convergent adaptive control scheme for robot
motion control with the following features is proposed. First, the ad- schemes is that they require high controller gains in order to both
aptation law possesses enhanced robustness with respect to noisy ve- overcome the uncertainty in the initial parameter errors and comlocity measurements. Second, the controller does not require the inclu- pensate for the dependency on the magnitude of the desired trajecsion of high gain loops that may excite the unmodeled dynamics and tory velocity.
amplify the noise level. Third, we derive for the unknown parameter
An alternative way to reduce the sensitivity to velocity measuredesign a relationship between compensator gains and closed-loop convergence rates that is independent of the robot task. A simulation ex- ment noise has been proposed by Sadegh and Horowitz [6]. Their
ample of a two-DOF manipulator features some aspects of the control idea is to replace the actual position and velocity in the regressor
scheme.
by the desired trajectory values. This modification brings along two
new difficulties: the inclusion of an additional feedback proportional to the square of the tracking error that may induce a high
I. INTRODUCTION
gain loop during the transients, and also a lower bound on the comThe path tracking control problem of rigid robots with uncertain pensator gains that is dependent on the magnitude of the desired
parameters that received the attention of robot control theorists in trajectory velocity. This bound again translates into a high gain
the last few years has matured to a stage where theoretically sat- requirement when tracking fast reference signals. In [8] the latter
isfactory asymptotic results are now well established, see, e.g., restriction on the controller gains is removed, but still a nonlinear
[ l ] . In order for these results to penetrate the realm of applications feedback is required in order to be able to show global converthere are at least three basic requirements that should be satisfied. gence.
The clever inclusion of a normalization term in the parameter
First, the adaptation law should not be sensitive to (unavoidable)
velocity measurement noise. Second, high gain designs that excite adaptation law (as well as the Lyapunov function) allows Whitthe unmodeled torsional modes and aggravate the noise sensitivity comb et al. [12] to establish global stability for an adaptive scheme
problem (cf. [ 2 ] ) , should be avoided. Third, nonconservative mea- without the parameter drift problem nor the need for the nonlinear
sures to cany out the gain tuning taking into account the closed- proportional feedback term, but still requiring the controller gains
loop robustness-performance tradeoff should be provided to the de- to satisfy an inequality that depends on the desired trajectory vesigner. In particular, it is desirable to have available relationships locity. As we will show below, this condition translates into a taskbetween controller gain ranges and convergence rate bounds, which dependent upper bound on the attainable convergence rates.
The main contribution of this paper (see also [13] containing part
to some extent are independent of the specific task. To the best of
our knowlege, all existing adaptive controllers for which global of the theoretical results) is to combine ideas of [8] and [12] to
stability of the closed loop can rigorously be proven fail to satisfy come up with an adaptive controller that has enhanced robustness
all of the requirements mentioned previously. Some representative with respect to velocity measurement noise, does not require high
gain loops, and to provide a relationship between convergence rates
examples are briefly discussed below.
Probably the most elegant solutions to the adaptive motion con- and compensator gains that is independent of the desired trajectory
trol problem are provided by the so-called passivity-based meth- velocity magnitude. Furthermore, the required additional compuods, e.g., [3], [4]. An important drawback of these schemes is that tations are basically negligible.
they are not robust to velocity measurement noise. Specifically, in
The remaining part of the paper is organized as follows. For
underexcited operation, e.g., when performing a regulation task, clarity we have treated the known and the unknown cases sepathe well-known phenomenon of parameter drift [5] in the adaption rately. Our main results concerning the nonadaptive controller are
law is prone to occur due to the presence of quadratic terms in the presented in Section 11, whereas the adaptive case is presented in
Section 111. The robustness of the proposed adaptive control scheme
Manuscript received December 14, 1992. H. Berghuis was supported by is illustrated in a simulation study of a two-DOF manipulator in
the Netherlands Technology Foundation (STW). R . Ortega was supported
Section IV. We will give some conclusions in Section V .
at the University of Twente by the Dutch Network on Systems and Control.
H. Berghuis is with the Control Group, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands.
11. KNOWNPARAMETER
CASE
R. Ortega was on leave with the Department of Applied Mathematics,
University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands. He is now A . Main Result
with the Universite de Technologie de Compiegne, Heudiasyc UR
C.N.R.S. 817, Centre de Recherches de Royallieu, 60206 Compiegne
Consider a standard n-degrees of freedom rigid robot model of
cedex, France.
the form [14]:
H. Nijmeijer is with the Systems and Control Group, Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Neth(1)
M(q)B + C(q, q>q + G(q) = 7 ,
q E Fr
erlands.
IEEE Log Number 92 12603,
where q is the vector of the generalized coordinates, r is the input
A Robust Adaptive Robot Controller
1042-296X/93$03.00 0 1993 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS A N D AUTOMATION, VOL. 9, NO. 6 , DECEMBER 1993
826
torque vector, and M ( q ) , C(q, q)q, and G(q) represent the inertia
matrix, the vector of Coriolis and centrifugal forces, and the gravitation vector, respectively. We assume that C(4, q) is defined using the Christoffel symbols, see, e.g., [ l ] . Let the control torque
7 be given as
7 =
M(q)qd
+
c(q,4
- k ) q d
+ G(q) - Kdk
- Kpe
(2a)
with
yields
k(e, 2)
s T [ M(q)t + );M(q)e + X C ( ~4)e
, - XC(q, e)qd
=
- K d e - Kpe]
V(e, e) =
and where q d
KF > 0 ,
E
2n is the desired trajectory, Kd
=
K i > 0 , Kp =
-s'[K~ - W(q)le+ >;sTM(q)e+ V C ( q , e ) e
- LeTKpe.
-
(14)
At this moment we introduce a new variable that will simplify our
futher developments, namely
(3)
with & a positive constant, and 11 11 is defined as the Euclidean
norm.
Assume the controller gains are chosen such that
(13)
where we have used (9b) and the skew symmetry of k ( q ) - 2 C ( q ,
q), see, e.g., [ l ] . Now, (9a) allows us to rewrite (13) as
(2b)
t?Eq-qd
+ eTKpe
s1 E e
+ -x2e .
In terms of s, we can rewrite (14) as
where
Umrn(KJ, Kd,M
Kd,m
umx(Kd), Kp,m
E
Umin(Kp)
(5)
with umax
U,,"
the maximum and minimum singular value,
respectively, and M,, M M , and CMsatisfy (cf. [15]):
( a ) ,
(e)
<Mm
5
II C(g, x)ll
5
0
IIM(q)ll
CM llxll
In Appendix I we establish the following bounds for last two righthand-side terms
(6a)
5 MM
for all x
(6b)
Then we can prove the following proposition.
Proposition 2.1: Under the condition ( 4 ) , the closed-loop system is globally convergent, that is, e and e asymptotically converge
to zero and all internal signals are bounded. If besides (4)the condition
(7)
Replacing these bounds in (2.16) and rearranging terms we obtain
(18)
where
KI E
holds, then the closed-loop system is exponentially stable, that is,
there exist m > 0, p > 0, independent of the desired trajectory
velocity, such that
for all t
me-P'Ilx(0)112
llx(t)11* 5
2
o
(8)
where x T = (eTe').
0
Proofi We will strongly rely on the following well-known
properties of C(4,
e )
C(4, 4 Y = C(q, Y D
C(q, x
+
ay) = C(q, 4
(94
+a
q , Y)
(9b)
for all x, y, q E ??", a! E ?.
Combining (1) and (2) and using (9b) we get
M(q)e
4K
K2 E
P.m
b
x c ( q , e)qd
Kdk
K p e = 0.
(10)
Consider the positive definite Lyapunov function candidate
=
sTM(q)s
where
s = e
+
+ Xe.
eTKpe.
(11)
V ( e , e )= - s T M ( q ) s ,
2
+ -21 eTKpe
which can be bound as
(12)
With abuse of notation we will write V(e, e ) everywhere, although
we will freely change the coordinates (e, e)into other coordinates.
Taking the time derivative of (1 1) along the trajectory of (10)
-K~,M
- 2hohfM
- ~AQCM.
(19)
It is easy to see that (4)ensures that K ~ K~
,
> 0. Thus V(e, e) is a
nonincreasing function bounded from below. This implies from (1 1)
that s, e E L ! & and
, consequently e, sI EL!&.Now, because h E L ,
we conclude from (18) that sI,e E L i . From square integrability
and uniform continuity of e we conclude that it converges to zero.
To complete the first part of the proof notice that we also have e
E L i , thus it suffices to establish that e E L!&,which follows from
the error dynamics (10).
To prove exponential stability let us write V(e, e ) in terms of the
coordinates (sI,( X/2) e ) :
1
+ c(q,4);
V(e, e )
Kd,,, - 3hMM - 2&cc,,
+ srM(4)
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL. 9, NO. 6 , DECEMBER 1993
where
6) To motivate our choice of the Lyapunov function (1 l), which
was inspired by [17], let us consider the one proposed in [12]:
Vw(e,e ) =
5
iTM(q)e+ XeTM(q)e + eTKpe.
(27)
This function is related to (1 1) by
and (Y is any positive number.
Under assumption (7) we can find OL > 0 such that E , , t2 > 0.
On the other hand, boundedness of e ensures that h is bounded
away from zero, and consequently t 3 < 03. From (21) and (18) we
conclude that there exist m,,p , > 0 such that
V J e , e ) = V ( e , e)
- t h2eTM(q)e.
(28)
If we evaluate Vw(e,e) we obtain an additional term in eThf(q)e.
Using the skew-symmetry property this amounts to an extra term
in eTC(q, @ e . This term cannot be compensated by the control and
can only be bounded, in terms of e and e , with a bound on
6&
Ily(t)(12 5 m,e-P" I(y(0)1(~ for all t 2 O
where y r
=
( ( X / 2 ) e r.):s
(23)
111. UNKNOWN
PARAMETER
CASE
Now we observe that
x =
T ( X)y
where
T ( A) =
-I
(24)
1'
1
The proof is completed by noting that
A . Main Result
In order to extend the foregoing result to the unknown parameter
case, we use the linear in the parameters property of robot dynamics, see, e.g., [ 11. That is, we can write (1) as
M(q)i + c(q,q)q
+
G(q) = y(q, 6 , 6, B) 8
(29)
where Y(*)is a regressor matrix, which is linear in the second,
third, and fourth argument and 0 E Rp represents a vector of unknown parameters. Now, consider (1) in closed loop with
and consequently T and T-l are bounded matrices.
B. Discussion
1) Notice that in contrast to [6], [ l l ] , and [12], the conditions
(4) and (7) on the controller gains A,,, Kp, and Kd are independent
of the desired trajectory velocity. Consequently the convergence
rate is also independent of qd. This makes the tuning process task
independent.
2) It is worth remarking that in the stability proof of the scheme
proposed by Whitcomb et al. [12] a term X (3) (denoted E in their
paper) is introduced in the Lyapunov function. The conditions for
stability invoke an upper bound on A,, (denoted eo in their paper)
that depends on I l q d l l . Even though X is not used in the (known
parameter) control implementation, X, upper bounds the schemes
convergence rate, see L in [12], and makes it dependent of the desired trajectory velocity.
3) In [16] an upper and lower bound has been determined on m
and p , respectively. These bounds depend on the initial tracking
error x(O), which is due to the normalization of A. For global exponential stability of a differential equation it is in the mathematics
literature normally understood that (8) holds for some m and p independent of the initial state. As a consequence, the exponential
stability result (8) is not global in a strict mathematical sense.
4) The proposed control law does not contain a nonlinear PD
term as in [6] and 181, which injects into the loop a gain proportional to the square of the tracking error.
5) Two key modifications are introduced in the controller (2).
The inclusion of an additional term --hC(q, e)qd and the use of the
normalization factor A. The first idea exploits the structural property (9) of C(q, .) and was introduced in [SI, while the normalization factor is being used in [12]. The h factor is needed in the
controller to be able to bound the cubic term sTC(q,e)e by quadratic
terms, as done in (17b), Furthermore, the additional term that appears in v ( e , e) due to A can be upper bounded by quadratic terms
in s, and ( h / Z ) e , as shown in Appendix I.
where X is as in (2.3) and
8 adjusted by
where s is given by (2.12). Then we have:
Proposition 3.1: Assume that (2.4) holds. Then the adaptive
system ( l ) , (30)-(31) is globally convergent, that is e and e asymptotically converge to zero and all internal signals are bounded. 0
Proof: Putting (30) into (1) we obtain
kf(q)&f c(q,q)e
+ hC(q, e)qd -I-Kde + K p e
(32)
(33)
Consider the Lyapunov function candidate
VA(e,e , 8) = V(e, e)
+ eT r-'8
(34)
e)
with V(e, e) as in (11). The time derivative of VA(e,e, along the
error dynamics (32) with the choice of the adaptation law (31) yields
(18). Global convergence then follows from the arguments used in
the proof of Proposition 2.1.
B. Discussion
1) The remarks as given in Section 11-Balso hold for the adaptive case.
2) It is well known [5] that the equilibrium set of adaptive systems is unbounded. Therefore, in underexcited conditions and in
the presence of noise in the adaptation law, the instability mechanism of parameter drift appears. To exemplify this phenomenon,
consider a single link pendulum moving in the horizontal plane,
-
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL. 9 , NO. 6 , DECEMBER 1993
828
that is:
p
12.. -
4-7
(35)
where only the payload mass mp is unknown, and take 1 = 1 [m].
One particular situation in which excitation is lost is in the regulation part of the task, so assume the q d = consfant. In these circumstances the adaptation law of 131 with velocity measurement
noise '1 r N ( 0 , ( r 2 ) looks like
which has as expectation
X
m,=2kg
\.:
On the other hand, in this situation the adaptation law (31) of the
proposed controller becomes
d
{ k p }= 0 .
dt
Fig. 1 . Two-DOF robot system.
-
The integral of the second term in (37) introduces a drift proportional to the noise variance U ' , whereas (38) is robust for q.
In this illustrative example it was assumed that q d = consfant.
We would like to stress, however, that the increased noise robustness feature of the controller ((30) and (31)) will definitely hold in
other underexcited situations.
3) The adaptation laws presented in [6], [8], [ l l ] , and [12] possess also enhanced robustness with respect to velocity measurement noise, but these control schemes have the drawbacks mentioned in the introduction.
4) The extra computations needed in the implementation of the
controller ((30) and (31)) due to the additional term --XC(q, e)qd
are negligible. Since he is already needed in s we only require an
extra addition.
5) For a stable implementation of the controller (3.2)-(3.3) and
, are
the ones in [6], [8], [ l l ] , [12], the coefficients Mu and C
required. Since these coefficients bound the actual system dynamics, one has to assume that the unknown parameters Oi belong to
i = 1,
* ,p , and take the supremum
some interval [O,.,,,, Oi,,J,
of Mu,C, over these intervals. From a practical perspective this
is quite a reasonable procedure. Nevertheless, notice that it requires some minor additional information on 0 in comparison to the
controllers in [3] and [4].
6) As can easily be seen in (30) and (31), for qd = constant the
controller reduces to PD control with adaptive gravitation compensation. Note also that in this case a PID controller could be employed to overcome steady-state errors due to the uncertainties in
the gravitation parameters. In 1181 it was shown, however, that the
PID controller has a number of drawbacks. First, to ensure stability
of the PID controller, the gain matrices must satisfy complicated
inequalities that depend on the initial conditions. Second, in the
common case in which only the payload mass is unknown, a PID
controller requires as many integrators as the number of robot links,
whereas for the implementation of the controller (30)-(3 1) one integrator suffices. Third, and most importantly, the PID controller
exhibits worse control performance compared to the PD plus adaptive gravitation compensation, see [18].
IV. SIMULATION
STUDY
In order to show the robustness of the proposed adaptive control
scheme (30)-(31) for noisy velocity measurements, we consider a
relatively simple but illustrative example of a two-DOF robot sys-
120 I
L
0.1
0.9
1.5
0
time (s)
Fig. 2. Desired trajectory
tem moving in the horizontal plane ([19], see Fig. 1). The dynamic
equations describing the robot system are given in Appendix B. In
this simulation study it was assumed that the system dynamics are
known except for an unknown payload, for which the controller
has to adapt. The actual payload mp the robot manipulator has to
transport in the simulations is equal to 2 kg. The robot system has
to follow a straight line in the Cartesian space, from the initial
position (x, y) = (-1.25, 1.25) to the end position (1.25, 1.25)
within 1.5 s, where the origin is located at the joint of link 1. The
desired trajectory in joint coordinates is shown in Fig. 2.
First a simulation of the robot system controlled by the adaptive
controller of Slotine and Li [3] was performed. This controller is
given by
7
= h(q)
(qd
- K,jk
d
-
dt
(8)
=
-r
-
-
be) + e(q3 4) ( 4 d
-
hoe)
+ Gq)
bKde
YT(q,q, q d - hoe, qd
-
i o e ) (e -t h o e ) .
(39)
The velocity signal q was assumed to be contaminated with zero
mean Gaussian noise. The used controller settings are Kd = 251,
X, = 1 and r = 15, which result in a satisfactory performance of
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL. 9, NO. 6, DECEMBER 1993
-1.4
0
time (s)
Fig. 3 . Angular errors with Slotine and Li controller (4.1).
4.0
3
reason that qd2(t)is mainly responsible for the parameter adaptation
comes from the fact that link 2 is most sensitive for the payload.
Notice the drift in the parameter estimate after the time that the
desired trajectory has lost its persistent excitation, t > 1.5 s.
In a second simulation the proposed controller (30) and (31) was
applied to the robot system. Under the assumption that the robot
has to transport payloads up to 2 kg, i.e., mp,min= 0 and m,,,,, =
2 , the upper bounds in (2.6) have been determined as M M = 20
and C, = 5 . The controller settings for this simulation were Kp =
751, Kd = 401, X, = 0.5, and I’ = 15, so the condition (4)on Xo
is satisfied. Fig. 5 shows the angular errors obtained when applying
controller (30) and (31) to the robot system.
Comparing these angular errors with the ones in Fig. 3 shows
that the performance of the controllers with respect to path tracking
is quite similar. Fig. 6 shows the estimated payload mass fi,(t) for
the controller (30) and (31). As can be seen, there is no drift in the
estimate any more.
Fig. 4. Estimated mass with Slotine and Li controller (4.1)
0.2I
time (s)
Fig. 6 . Estimated mass with proposed controller (3.2), (3.3)
I
V. CONCLUSION
We have presented a globally convergent adaptive control algorithm for robot motion control with enhanced noise sensitivity
properties. Moreover, the controller does not contain nonlinear
proportional compensation gains and the controller gains and the
convergence rate are independent of the desired reference velocity.
To attain this objective we propose a new controller structure
that incorporates the normalization idea of Whitcomb et al. [12]
and the additional compensation term of Berghuis et al. [8]. From
the analysis point of view, a Lyapunov function similar to the one
proposed in [ 171 is used to ensure negative definiteness of its time
derivative via a suitable change of coordinates. In the nonadaptive
case this Lyapunov function allows us to conclude exponential stability
with a convergence rate independent of the robot task.
-1.4
0
In a simulation study of a two-DOF robot manipulator the en4.0
time (s)
hanced noise robustness of the proposed adaptive control scheme
Fig. 5 . Angular errors with proposed controller (3.2), (3.3).
was illustrated. Nevertheless, the ultimate justification for adaptive
control lies in its practical implementation. In relation to this one
should realize that due to the availability of fast processing equipment the computational complexity of the model-based algorithms
the controlled robot system. Fig. 3 shows the angular errors obtained with the Slotine and Li controller.
no longer impedes their implementation. This can be concluded
In Fig. 4 the estimated payload mass hJt) is shown. Parameter
from the increasing number of applications, see for instance [9],
adaptation mainly occurs during the periods that qd2(t)is persis[lo], [ 121, [20]. Similar experiments need to be done in order to
tently exciting (“sufficiently rich”), which is the case, see Fig. 2,
see if the proposed adaptive controller also performs successfully
in practice. Currently we are working on this (cf. [21]).
in the time intervals 0.1 5 f 5 0.6 and 0.9 s t 5 1.4 s. The
‘
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL. 9, NO. 6 , DECEMBER 1993
APPENDIX
I
Upper bounds for last two right-hand-side terms in (2.16) are
given by
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The second author would like t o thank Dan Koditschek for sending him a preprint of the interesting paper by Whitcomb et al. [ 121.
REFER EN cEs
APPENDIX
I1
The robot system used in the simulations was derived from [19].
The equations of motion are given by ( l ) , with
-sin (q2142
sin (q2141
- sin
(q2)(41
0
The known system parameters are equal t o
m l l o f q )= 8.77
+
m,,,fq) = 0.76
+ 0.51 cos (q2)
m2,,(q) = 0.76
+ 0.51 cos (q2)
m22ofq) =
View publication stats
0.62
+ 42)
1.02 cos (q2)
1
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