Tchapla, Mjanelle, Bleton, Goursaud
Groupe de Chimie Analytique de
Paris Sud EA 33 – 43, LETIAM,
IUT d’Orsay (Universit Paris XI),
Plateau de Moulon, 91400 Orsay,
France
Characterisation of embalming materials of a
mummy of the Ptolemaic era.
Comparison with balms from mummies of
different eras
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry has been used to determine the nature of
organic materials used in mummification balms. A comparative analysis of samples
taken from Egyptian mummies is developed. The results are given in two parts. First,
it is shown that the chemical composition of the balm is practically independent of the
part of the mummy from which it is taken. This study was done on a Ptolemaic
mummy (circa 100 BC from the Guimet Museum in Lyon). Fats, beeswax, and diterpenic resins were the main components: they were found everywhere. Castor oil was
also very often detected (in half of the samples). This particular fat is present in the
balm inside the thorax but not in the skull. Moreover it is shown that a vegetable tannin was employed. Components indicative of vegetable tannin input (gallic acid and
inositols) were found in seven samples out of eighteen, particularly close to the body
and on the canopic pack of the heart. Secondly, some conclusions from a comparative study of the composition of balms from mummies of various social levels as well
as of different Egyptian periods are reported. It is shown that beeswax was used as
from very early times (XVIIIth dynasty). The mixture of beeswax, fats, and diterpenoid
resins would appear to be more recent. The balms of three mummies dating from
more recent Egyptian periods (XIXth to XXVth dynasty) were analysed. No evidence of
a resin, gum-resin, or plant gum could be found. Some mummies would appear to
have been embalmed with fats or beeswax. Finally, the entrails canopic pack said to
belong to Ramses II undoubtedly shows an embalming process with a triterpenic
resin of the mastic type. The adopted analytical methodology enabled us to achieve
simultaneous detection of four components of the balm of the Ptolemaic mummy.
Analysis of the other five mummies revealed far less complex chemical compositions
for the balms. This may be an indication of different embalming processes, although
we should bear in mind the question of organic matter preservation through the ages.
Key Words: Mummification balms; Waxes; Resins; Tannins; Castor oil; XVIIIth dynasty to Ptolemaic mummies;
Received: May 7, 2003; revised: July 25, 2003; accepted: July 28, 2003
DOI 10.1002/jssc.200301607
1 Introduction
Determining the nature of the organic substances used by
the Egyptians to prepare their mummification balms
should ultimately enable Egyptologists to gain a better
understanding of ancient Egyptian funeral rites. Scientific
examination of Egyptian mummies performed in the last
decades yielded a wealth of reliable information through
the use highly specific and sensitive analytical methods
such as gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) [1 – 6]. These studies provided experimental
Correspondence: Alain Tchapla, Groupe de Chimie Analytique de Paris Sud EA 33 – 43, LETIAM, IUT d’Orsay (Universit
Paris XI), Plateau de Moulon, 91400 Orsay, France.
Phone: +33 (0)1 69 33 61 30. Fax: +33 (0)1 69 33 60 48.
E-mail: tchapla@iut-orsay.fr.
J. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
www.jss-journal.de
evidence concerning the range of natural substances
used to protect the corpses from decay. Embalming
agents such as beeswax, bitumen, di- or triterpenic resins,
vegetable oils, were frequently reported materials. Their
use in the mummification process is justified by their now
well recognised antifungal, antibacterial activities, their
properties as waterproofing agents, or their efficiency in
the fixation of biological tissues.
Access to a definitive and accurate knowledge based on
experimental observations is, however, hampered by a
number of factors including the complexity of the mummification process and extensive modifications throughout
the long history of this ancient civilisation. As reported by
El Mahdy [7], “The oldest examples of embalming are to
be found in Egypt; they were the fruit of centuries-old
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2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Original Paper
Alain Tchapla
Philippe MØjanelle
Jean Bleton
Serge Goursaud
217
218
Tchapla, Mjanelle, Bleton, Goursaud
experience […]. The first attempts go back to the Ist
dynasty, circa 3000 BC. Initially basic, the techniques gradually became more sophisticated. The IVth dynasty saw
the start of removal of the viscera. Natron […] was used to
preserve them. During the Middle Kingdom, it was used to
dehydrate the body while removing putrefaction. Once
dried, the bodies were wrapped in bandages and doused
with several liters of perfume and resins […] During the
New Kingdom, the method was further improved, to reach
perfection under the XXIst dynasty.” Similarly, Dunand and
Lichtenberg [8] stress that “much of our knowledge relating to mummification performed during the New Kingdom
comes from observation of royal mummies, which were
naturally given the best treatment”. They also emphasise
the fact that, “at the start of the 1st Millennium BC, mummification became generalised, leading to increasingly frequent use of the simplest methods. It is therefore possible
to talk of a decline: a very relative decline because very
finely crafted mummies were still to be found. Mummification continued after the arrival of the Greeks and then of
the Romans. […] And, contrary to current opinion, the
work often remained of good quality. […] The expansion
of Christianity, as from the IIIrd and especially the IVth Century AD, did not put an end to mummification. […] Few
Christian mummies have been studied. Those that have
been would appear to have undergone a treatment that
differs slightly from the conventional treatment.”
In the light of these texts, three main series of questions
are therefore raised for physical chemists with a view to
improving the knowledge of Egyptologists:
i) For any given mummy, does the mummification balm
have the same makeup on all parts of the body, on the outside and on the inside of it, and on the canopic packs?
ii) At any given era, did the substances used differ
depending on the social class of the deceased? In which
case, what differences in composition can be highlighted?
iii) For any given social class, is it possible to highlight differences in balm composition as a function of the era in
which the mummification was performed?
The object of this article is to begin to answer these questions through a few examples. For the first question, we
used the results of work performed to determine the characteristics of the balm of a mummy from the Ptolemaic
period, kept at the Guimet Museum of Natural History in
Lyon, France and from which samples were taken from
various parts of the body. The mummy was that of a man
who was about forty years old, tall (1.72 m [59899]), of Ethiopian type from Upper Egypt in the Theban Region. In June
1986, the mummy was subjected to a full examination and
to a campaign of work involving, in all, a team of about
thirty specialists from various disciplines. The object of
this operation was to collect as much information as possible on the mummification practices in use as late as possiJ. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
www.jss-journal.de
ble in ancient Egypt (50 BC l 100, as indicated by radiocarbon dating), i. e. on the most developed techniques
concerning that practice. The operation was equivalent to
a genuine autopsy. In this case, “sacrifice” of the mummy
was perfectly justified by the possibility of bringing
together a large number of skills, focused on the same
one-off experiment [9].
The mummy was examined from many aspects, starting
with the successive wrappings of bandages and the packing fabrics, down to the outer and inner parts of the body
itself, which were made accessible by trepanation (for the
cranial cavity) and by cutting out a thoraco-abdominal
plate.
The preparation of the body that was performed by the
embalmers bears witness to genuine expertise, including
surgical practices for removal of the brain and evisceration. The organs were treated separately and put back into
the thoraco-abdominal cavity in the form of five canopic
packs. Histological examinations made it possible to
recognise cellular structures characteristic of the heart, of
the lungs, the liver, the intestine, and remains of skin,
which was present in the form of a piece cut out and rolled
up.
A first clue to the fact that a resin was used was given by
analysing the methanol-soluble fraction of balm by liquid
chromatography [10]. Retene and abietic acid, two commonly encountered components of conifer resins, were
thus detected in two samples taken from the thoracic cavity. It should also be noted that a third sample had certain
characteristics in common with a triterpenic resin tentatively identified as mastic. Labdanum, a resin secreted by
Cistus ladaniferus, was also identified by GC-MS [11].
Connan and Dessort used the same technique to analyse
three balm samples taken from the cranial cavity, from the
viscera, and from the outer wrappings of the mummy at
the knees [12, 13]. They showed three ingredients: a resin
probably produced by a conifer, beeswax, and also Dead
Sea bitumen. It was shown that the balms of the viscera or
of the skull and of the knees were prepared from different
batches of bitumen.
Naturally, answering questions ii) and iii) was more difficult
given the sampling to be performed. In the second part of
this article, we have grouped together analyses of balms
from seven mummies of different eras and social classes.
These results give a glimpse of the diversity of embalming
practices, pending a larger amount of data from experiments.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Samples
The composition of the balm of the anonymous mummy
kept in the Guimet Museum of Natural History in Lyon,
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2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Characterisation of embalming materials of a mummy of the Ptolemaic era
219
Table 1. Characteristics of the investigated mummies.
Provenance
Sex/age
Name
Social status
Date/Period
Thebes
M/ca. 40
?
?
Thebes (?)
F/30 – 35
Amon gate
keeper’s daughter
?
305 – 50
Ptolemaic
1580 – 1314 BC
XVIIIth dynasty
Middle Kingdom
or later period
751 – 525 BC
XXV – XXVIth
dynasties
1085 – 950 BC
XXIst dynasty
1314 – 1200 BC
XIXth dynasty
Rod, Upper Egypt
(probably Antinoe dig)
Thebes (?)
M/child
In-imen (-na)
y-s-nebou(t)
?
M/adult
Nahmit-Imen
Amon temple
head-sacrificer
Thebes (?)
M/ca. 40
Amon temple
scribe priest
Thebes, Valley of the kings
M/ca. 90
Iou.efn-enkhonsou
Ramses II
14
C dating
50l100 BC
2060 – 1780 BC
–
430 – 450 BC
–
–
Table 2. Description of samples taken from the unwrapped mummy kept under number 90001255 at the Guimet Museum of
Natural History in Lyon.
Sample
Sample location
Sample description
M1
M2
M3A
M3B
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9A
M9B
M10A
M10B
M11A
M11B
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
interior side of right toe
left calf
external side of right knee
underlying part of sample M3A
right hip
right thoracic wall
occipital region of the skull
lower part of pelvis (right side)
lower part of pelvis (right side)
left abdominal wall
piece of balm
piece of linen embedded within the balm
piece of balm
brown and fibrous material (tissue)
piece of balm
piece of linen embedded within the balm
piece of balm
piece of linen embedded within the balm
white deposit scrapped on the surface of the balm layer
piece of linen embedded within the balm
piece of linen
white deposit scrapped on the surface of the balm layer
balm layer beneath M10A
brown and fibrous material (tissue) infiltrated with balm
piece of balm detached from the surface of sample M11A
piece of balm
piece of balm
piece of balm
piece of balm
piece of balm
piece of balm
piece of balm
pubis
lower part of pelvis (right side)
thoracic cavity
cranial cavity (right wall)
canopic pack containing the heart
canopic pack containing the lungs
canopic pack containing the liver
canopic pack containing a roll skin
canopic pack containing the bowels
France was studied. This mummy originated from upper
Egypt, probably Thebes, and was dated to the Ptolemaic
period (Table 1). Twenty-two samples, from 13 different
parts of the body and the five canopic packs (M14, M15,
M16, M17, and M18), were taken. The cranium and the
thoraco-abdominal cavity having being opened during the
autopsy conducted in 1986 enabled us to collect samples
from inside the body (M12, M13). The locations of the
samples and a brief description of them are given in
Table 2 and in Figure 1. With the exception of the samples corresponding to points M3B, M8, M9, M10, and
M11, the samples were essentially fragments of balm
detached from the outer or inner surfaces of the body in
J. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
www.jss-journal.de
the form of flakes of from 1 to 2 mm in thickness. The
material appeared black, homogeneous, hard, and friable,
and, depending on the case, had a surface of matt or satin
appearance. In certain cases (M2, M5, M7, M9A), the presence of pieces of fabric was detected, those pieces being
the remains of bandages set in the thickness of the balm.
Because of their visibly heterogeneous nature, certain
samples were subjected to more than one analysis in
order to determine the characteristics of the various component portions:
– at point 11: analysis of the balm (M11B) adhering to
the surface of a fibrous material that was brown in col-
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2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
220
Tchapla, Mjanelle, Bleton, Goursaud
2.2 Chemicals
Solvents and reagents were of analytical grade. Methanol
(G99.8% min), n-hexane (G99%, trace analysis grade),
pyridine (G99.5%) were purchased from SDS (Peypin,
France). Acetyl chloride was from Sigma (St Louis, MO,
USA). The trimethylsilylation reagent, SYLON-HTP, consisting of pyridine, hexamethyldisilazane, and trimethylchlorosilane (9 : 3 : 1 v : v : v) was purchased from Supelco
(Bellefonte, PA, USA).
2.3 Sample treatment
Previous chromatographic analyses were conducted after
subjecting the samples to a treatment based on extraction
using various organic solvents [10, 12]. For our part, we
wanted to use an analytical protocol offering an additional
field of application to seek proof that ingredients such as
plant gums or any other polysaccharide substance were
used in the balm. A two step sample preparation, involving
acidic methanolysis followed by trimethylsilylation was
selected for this purpose. The efficiency of this procedure
has been demonstrated for the characterisation of a set of
organic materials including in addition to polysaccharides:
oils, waxes, vegetable tannins, and resins [6, 14, 15]. The
method has, however, proved invaluable for identification
of molecular markers for proteinic or low concentration
bitumen materials.
Figure 1. Localisation of sampling sites on the mummy kept
under number 90001255 at the Guimet Museum of Natural
History in Lyon.
our, and whose appearance was close to that of
tanned leather; this description and the location of the
sample (inside of the small pelvis) would suggest that
it is constituted by organ or muscle remains; a fragment of this substance without the balm was analysed
separately (M11A);
– at point 3: analysis of the balm (M3A) and of the
underlying material (M3B) which had the same
appearance as sample M11B;
– at point 9, analysis of a piece of cloth (remains of a
bandage) impregnated with balm (M9A) and of fibres
from the same fabric apparently not contaminated by
the balm (M9B); and
– at point 10: analysis of a fragment of balm (M10B) and
of white concretions collected on that fragment (M10A).
A sample of a substance having the same appearance
was scraped off at point 8 (M8).
In the course of scientific examinations or restoration
works, samples were taken from 5 other mummies. They
were found in upper Egypt (Thebes or Roda), and dated
from periods ranging from Middle Kingdom to XXVIth
dynasty. Those characteristics of these mummies of
which we were aware are given in Table 1.
J. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
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Each sample was treated as follows. Samples (typically
1.5 mg) were made up to 0.5 mL with a methanolic HCl
solution prepared by adding acetyl chloride (0.4 mL) to
15 mL of methanol. Methanolysis was conducted at 808C
for 24 h. Thereafter, HCl was neutralized by adding pyridine and methanol was removed using a nitrogen stream.
An excess of the trimethylsilylation agent (0.5 mL) was
added to the dried material. The solutions were then
heated at 808C for 2 h. Eventually, the derivatized samples were evaporated using rotary evaporation at 50 –
608C and immediately dissolved in 0.05 mL of hexane.
GC-MS analysis were performed with 1 lL of this solution.
Regardless of the sample, it should be noted that partial
solubilisation of the balm is obtained at the end of the
treatment. We were able to determine that the quantity of
solubilised matter represented about 5% of the weight of
the treated sample.
Following this procedure, initially free or esterified carboxylic acid groups are transformed into methyl ester
groups, while hydroxyl groups are converted into trimethylsilyl ethers. The methods allows for analysis of free monosaccharides and for analysis of monosaccharides incorporated into polysaccharides. It is important to note that several derivatives are formed from each monosaccharide as
a consequence of anomerisation and ring interconversion
reactions occurring during the acidic methanolysis step.
Under given reaction conditions each sugar yields a repro-
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2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Characterisation of embalming materials of a mummy of the Ptolemaic era
ducible isomer composition, independent of its initial
source, i.e. polysaccharide component or free sugar [16].
Each monosaccharide therefore displays a characteristic
chromatographic pattern which is especially helpful during
the qualitative analysis of sugars in complex mixtures.
2.4 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
(GC-MS)
The GC-MS system consisted of a Varian Series 3400
gas chromatograph (Varian, Walnut Creek, CA, USA)
interfaced by direct coupling to an INCOS 50 quadrupole
mass spectrometer (Finnigan, San Jose, CA, USA). The
gas chromatograph was equipped with a 30 m60.25 mm
ID fused silica column coated with a 0.25 lm film of
poly(5% phenyl, 95% methylsiloxane): DB-5 (J & W
Scientific, Folsom, CA, USA). The carrier gas was helium.
Injector and transfer line temperatures were set to 3008C
and 2508C, respectively. A splitless mode injection (splitless time 30 s) was followed by the oven temperature program: 40 – 1308C at 9 K/min, 130 – 2908C at 2 K/min and
2908C for 10 min. Electron impact mass spectra were collected in the total ion monitoring mode. Operating conditions for mass spectrometry were: source temperature
1008C, filament emission current 750 lA, ionizing voltage
70 eV, scan range from m/z 29 to m/z 650 with a period of
1.7 s. The other operating parameters were those set by
the instrument’s automatic calibration routine.
Surface deposits taken from samples M8 and M10 were
subjected to high temperature GC-MS. Analysis was performed on a QP-5000 GC-MS system (Shimadzu Corp.,
Kyoto, Japan) using a 30 m60.25 mm ID column coated
with a 0.15 lm thickness film of 100% dimethylsiloxane
(UA-1 (HT), Alltech, New Haven, CT, USA) and helium as
carrier gas. Operating conditions were: splitless injection
mode; injector temperature 3508C; oven temperature program 100 – 3508C at 10 K/min, 3508C for 10 minutes, then
350 – 3808C at 10 K/min, hold 10 min; interface and ion
source temperature 3008C, ionizing energy 70 eV; mass
range m/z 50 – 700 with a 1 s scan interval.
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Study of a human mummy (No.: 90001255) at
the Guimet Museum of Natural History in Lyon
France: analysis of the balm applied to the
body and to the canopic packs
3.1.1 Identification of four ingredients used in the
embalmers’ recipe
Table 3 gives a qualitative assessment of the full series of
the analyses, which made it possible to show 8 classes of
compounds:
1) Aliphatic carboxylic diacids: the numbers of their carbon atoms lie in the range 5 to 13, with a very marked preJ. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
www.jss-journal.de
221
dominance for homologues having 9 (majority product of
the series) or 8 carbon atoms;
2) fatty acids having saturated carbon chains (representing the most abundant components), unsaturated carbon
chains, monohydroxylated or dihydroxylated carbon
chains. Compounds having even numbers of carbon
atoms were dominant in these fatty acid series. Numerous
samples nonetheless contained small quantities of saturated methyl esters having odd numbers of carbon atoms
(E13:0, E15:0, E17:0). In the latter two cases, two isomers
having chains branched by the presence of a methyl
group in the iso or anteiso position were also detected;
3) fatty alcohols having even numbers of carbons, lying in
the range 24 to 32;
4) alkanes having odd numbers of carbons, lying in the
range 25 to 33;
5) diterpenic compounds of the series of resin acids;
except for sample M12, trimethylsilyl esters and methyl
esters of 7-oxodehydroabietic acid were the majority
representatives of this series;
6) phenolic acids including gallic acid, hydroxylated and/
or methoxylated derivatives of hydrocinnamic and benzoic acids;
7) sugars and related hydroxylated compounds; monosaccharides, detected in all of the samples, belonged to a
range made up of 7 aldoses and 2 uronic acids; in some
samples, we also identified alditols (in particular glycerol ,
always present), inositols ; and
8) finally, cholesterol was present in small quantities in
samples M11A and M8.
Certain very characteristic compounds or classes of compounds give definite proof of at least 4 classes of natural
substances being used during the embalming process.
3.1.1.1 Presence of beeswax
The series of compounds including fatty alcohols, alkanes
and fatty acids having at least 24 carbon atoms bears witness to the presence of a wax – probably beeswax which
would appear to be the only ceride known and used in
Ancient Egypt. All of the samples except for M3B and
M9B contained at least one representative belong to one
of these series of characteristic components. For certain
samples, e.g. M13 (Figure 2), their proportions are very
close to those obtained with a contemporary wax [15].
This is not, however, the general case: for certain samples, the relative abundance of fatty acids and of alkanes
compared with the proportions of alcohols are not reproduced. A typical example of this situation is given by the
chromatogram of sample M2 (not shown here) Such a
substance was also detected as constituent on oldest
Egyptian objects: ritual oils found in a tomb of a king’s
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2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
222
Tchapla, Mjanelle, Bleton, Goursaud
Table 3. Distribution of compounds and compounds classes detected in the investigated samples.
Samples
Compounds
D
Em:0
M1
M2
M3A M3B
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9A M9B M10A M10B M11A M11B M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17 M18
+
+
+
+
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+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
12:0
13:0
14:0
15:0
16:0
17:0
18:0
20:0
22:0
24:0
26:0
28:0
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18:2
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Em:n
Ei,jOH m:n
14OH 16:0
15OH 16:0
9,10OH 16:0
9,10OH 18:0
12OH 18:1b
Hm
27
29
31
33
Am
24
26
28
30
32
cholesterol
R2
S
Ara
Xyl
Rha
Fuc
Glu
Gal
Man
4-O-Me.Aglu
Agal
Aglu
I
P
Gall
Cinn
Cinn-OH
Van
Proto
+
+
–
D: dicarboxylic acids; E: saturated fatty acids; H: saturated hydrocarbons; A: fatty alcohols; R2: resinic acids; S: monosaccharides (Ara = arabinose, Xyl = xylose, Rha =
rhamnose, Fuc = fucose, Glu = glucose, Gal = galactose , Man = mannose, 4-O-Me.Aglu = 4-O-methylglucuronic acid, Agal = galacturonic acid, Aglu = glucuronic acid); I:
inositols; P: phenolic acids (Gall = gallic acid, Cinn = hydrocinnamic acid, Cinn-OH = hydroxyhydrocinnamic acid, Van = vanillic acid, Proto = protocatechuic acid). The
structure of hydrocarbon chains is denoted by the superscripts m, n, i, j are used to denote the nature of hydrocarbon chains m = number of carbon; n = number of ethylenic
bounds; i, j = position of hydroxyl groups. a: oleic acid; b: ricinoleic acid. tr: trace compound detected by mass fragmentograms at m/z 400 or m/z 281.
daughter of the XIIth dynasty [17], as well as coating agent
on walls of a teal funerary urn found in the tomb of the wife
of Rhamses III (Schiaparelli digs, valley of the queens)
[15]. It is also present as balm component of all animal
mummies of the Ptolemaic period we have analysed [15].
3.1.1.2 Presence of conifer resin
Diterpenes from the series of resin acids (detected in all of
the samples) and the absence of triterpenes would indiJ. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
www.jss-journal.de
cate the presence of a conifer resin of which it is currently
impossible to specify the botanical origin. For the vast
majority of the samples, 7-oxodehydroabietic acid
remained the sole indicator of this resin, corresponding to
an advanced state of oxidation. Samples M10B, M11B,
and above all M12 (Figure 3) depart from this rule, however, and had larger terpenic fractions. For the second of
those samples, the terpenic components, which included
significant quantities of dehydroabietic acid derivatives,
produced a chromatographic profile similar to that of a
i
2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Characterisation of embalming materials of a mummy of the Ptolemaic era
223
Figure 2. Total ion chromatogram of the balm from the skull (M13). Identified compounds, listed by elution order are:
E: E16:0; E17:0 (three isomers detected), E18:0; E14OH 16:0; E15OH 16:0; E9,10OH 16:0; E9,10OH 18:0 (two isomers
detected); E24:0; E26:0; E28: 0; R: 7-oxodehydroabietic acid; H: H27; H29; H31; A: A24; A26; A28; A30; A32.
Figure 3. Total ion chromatogram of the balm from the thoracic cavity of the mummy (sample M12). Identified compounds, listed
by elution order are:
D: D6; D7; D8; D9; E: E14:0; E16:0; E17:0 (two isomers detected); E18:1; E18:0; E14OH 16:0; E15OH 16:0; E9,10OH 16:0;
E12OH 18:1 (ricinoleic acid, denoted E*); E9,10OH 18:0 (two isomers detected); E24:0; E26:0, E28: 0; H: H27; H29; H31; A:
A24; A26; A28; A30. P: hydroxyhydrocinnamic acid, vanillic acid. Monosaccharide peak identification: glucose (6); mannose (7).
contemporary conifer resin such as rosin [6]. These molecular biomarkers were also found as the major component
of one of the ritual oils found in a tomb of a king’s daughter
(Khnoumit) enclosure of Amenhamat II pyramid (XIIth
dynasty) [17].
3.1.1.3 Presence of castor oil
Ricinoleic acid (E12OH 18:1), a fatty acid characteristic of
castor oil, appeared in seventeen samples out of twenty
J. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
www.jss-journal.de
two analysed. All of the main organic components shown
by a contemporary sample of castor oil appeared on the
chromatograms corresponding to these samples [6]; in
addition to ricinoleic acid, stearic, oleic, and palmitic acids
as well as glycerol (G) were actually detected. Unlike the
chromatogram of the reference oil, no mummy sample
had a distribution of fatty acids dominated by ricinoleic
acid. It is very likely that this molecular profile results from
addition of other fats that went to make up the balm and
whose exact origins are impossible to specify.
i
2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
224
Tchapla, Mjanelle, Bleton, Goursaud
Figure 4. Total ion chromatogram of sample M11B. Identified fatty acids, listed by elution order are:
E: E14:0; E16:0; E18:1; E18: 0; E12OH 18:1 (ricinoleic acid, denoted E*): P: protocatechuic acid, gallic acid (denoted P*); I: inositols. R2: resinic acids. Monosaccharide peak identification: arabinose (1); xylose (2); rhamnose (3); galactose (5); glucose (6);
mannose (7); galacturonic acid (10).
3.1.1.4 Presence of vegetable tannin
3.1.2 Other classes of compounds
Gallic acid, shown in eight samples, bears witness to the
use of a vegetable tannin. That compound was present in
quantities that varied from one sample to another: for samples M1, M3A, M4, M5, and M14 (heart canopic pack), the
quantities were mere traces, revealed by a fragmentogram at m/z 400 or m/z 281 characteristic ions. The quantities present were larger for samples M3B and M11A, and
the maximum quantity was found for M11B (Figure 4). In
the latter case, gallic acid was one of the major compounds of the chromatogram. Another feature of that sample was the presence of a series of inositols, among which
a particular derivative having a methylated hydroxyl group
predominated. In six of the eight above-mentioned samples, those cyclic polyols accompanied the gallic acid.
Together with that compound, they represent the signature of the vegetable tannin used by the embalmers.
So far we have mentioned characteristic compounds that
leave no doubt as to the natural substances from which
they come. The other compounds indicated in Table 3 do
not make it possible to give such a clear interpretation of
their origins. We propose examination of the following
hypotheses that may be put forward as to their origin(s),
pending subsequent corroboration.
The use of a tanning substance for preserving human tissues was a surprise to us. We have found no allusion to
such a practice either in the Egyptological literature, or in
the reports of examinations or scientific analysis of mummies. Methods of tanning using plant extracts were indeed
implemented in Ancient Egypt for preparing animal
hides [18]. According to Lucas [19], the pods, leaves, or
bark of indigenous trees such as Acacia nilotica were
apparently used for that purpose. For our part, failing
more specific information on the nature of the solutes
making up extracts of these plant organs, and failing a
reference sample, it is impossible for us to determine the
vegetable origin of the tannin used for the embalming.
J. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
www.jss-journal.de
3.1.2.1 Hypotheses on the origins of the fatty acids
First, in the series of saturated fatty acids (E), we observe
the presence of homologues E12:0, E13:0, E14:0, E15:0,
and E17:0 that do not occur among the main components
of castor oil or of beeswax, and that therefore very probably come from some other fat. Components such as oddnumber fatty acids and branched isomers of heptadecane
do not generally occur in the composition of fatty acids of
vegetable oils. Their presence would thus suggest a contribution of animal origin, or a contamination of the balm by
fatty acids from the fats of the mummified body. For samples M8 and M11A, these possibilities are corroborated by
the presence of cholesterol.
The process of self-oxidation of the fats making up the
balm or coming from the body of the mummy make it possible to report the presence of aliphatic diacids and hydroxylated fatty acids (E9,10OH 16 : 0, E9,10OH 18 : 0.).
These chemical modifications are general and concern
unsaturated fatty acids regardless of the fat from which
they come. The substances formed therefore yield no
further information on the ingredients used for mummifica-
i
2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Characterisation of embalming materials of a mummy of the Ptolemaic era
225
Figure 5. Total ion chromatogram of sample M2. Identified compounds, listed by elution order are:
D: D6 to D11; E: E14:0; E16:0; E17:0; E18:0; E14OH 16:0; E15OH 16:0; E9,10OH 16:0; E9,10OH 18:0 (two isomers detected);
E24:0; H: H27; H29; H31; A: A24; A26; A28; A30.
Monosaccharide peaks identification: rhamnose (3); galactose (5); glucose (6); mannose (7); galacturonic acid (10).
tion. Dicarboxylic acids come from degradation of polyunsaturated human fats when a dry mummification process was used. They were observed, elsewhere, on a
Inca mummy sample (No. 81000125, MHN Lyon) [15].
Such mummies are known to have undergone such a
mummification process. Simultaneously with these diacids a particular fatty acid with two unsaturations and eighteen carbon atoms is very often observed. Its molecular
structure is not well determined. It could be a cyclic C18
fatty acid. The chromatograms of the samples M2 (Figure 5) and M3A differ from the fourteen others in that the
quantities of diacids are significantly larger. It seems difficult to consider such a pattern resulting from an initial mixture containing castor oil and beeswax as the sole source
of fatty acids, given that their respective total percentages
of unsaturated fatty acids are less than 8% and 35%,
respectively [20, 21]. This observation might constitute an
additional argument in favour of the hypothetical presence
of other fatty acids.
Another possibility could be that aliphatic diacids were
formed by self-oxidation from ricinoleic acid (E12OH
18 : 1). However, we do not currently know whether its
reactivity in the oxidation processes is comparable to that
of non-hydroxylated unsaturated fatty acids. However, it
would seem that it is quite stable over time because it has
been found in relative abundance in a sample of balm
from the XXVth dynasty, without any significant quantities
of diacids appearing in the same sample [18].
J. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
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3.1.2.2 Hypotheses on the origins of the aromatic
compounds
The origins of the aromatic compounds other than gallic
acid, namely hydrocinnamic acid and its substituted derivatives, as well as those of benzoic acid are also uncertain.
This class of compounds is very widespread in the plant
kingdom. Substances related to cinnamic acid, in particular, enter into the compositions of many resinous secretions, and underlie their pharmacological properties or
their use in perfumes. They are represented in other materials implemented in mummification practices, such as
propolis, cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum bark), or
cassia (Cinnamomum cassia bark) [20].
3.1.2.3 Hypotheses on the origin of the sugars
Determining the origin of the sugars detected in all of the
samples analysed also proved to be difficult.
A first difficulty related more specifically to samples M2,
M5, M7, and M9A. As indicated in Table 2, those samples
were made up of fragments of linen bandage included in
the surrounding balm that covered the inner and outer surfaces of the body. In those cases, we expected the monosaccharides detected after acidic methanolysis and trimethylsilylation to have come, at least in part, from the
fabric. To verify this hypothesis, our approach consisted in
analysing, in parallel, fibres from a bandage that was
apparently unsoiled by the balm and a fibre of contemporary raw linen (Figure 6.c and Figure 6.e). Examining the
chromatograms obtained resulted in two observations.
i
2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
226
Tchapla, Mjanelle, Bleton, Goursaud
Figure 6. a – f). Mass fragmentograms (m/z 204 + m/z 217) allowing the comparison between the monosaccharide composition
of linen fibres and that of mummy samples. a: sample M9A; b: sample M2; c: sample M9B; d: sample M5; e: reference linen
fibres; f: sample M7. Monosaccharide peaks identification: arabinose (1), xylose (2), rhamnose (3), fucose (4), galactose (5),
glucose (6); mannose (7), glucuronic acid (9), galacturonic acid (10), 4-O-methylglucuronic acid (11).
J. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
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2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Characterisation of embalming materials of a mummy of the Ptolemaic era
227
First, it was observed that treating a linen fibre produces a
majority of monosaccharides likely to interfere with (by
masking) those coming from a gum or from a gum resin
used as an ingredient in the balm. Secondly, the differences between the two chromatograms are tiny, essentially related to the additional presence, in the material
taken from the mummy, of a few components probably originating from the balm: glycerol, stearic acid (E18:0), and
palmitic acid (E16 : 0), accompanied by their hydroxylated
derivatives, and finally 7-oxodehydroabietic acid. All of
these components were present in small amounts. Overall, the close similarity between the two chromatograms
would thus suggest the absence of a glucidic substance
(e. g. a gum) applied specifically to the first thickness of
bandages wrapping the body, or at least presence not in a
quantity sufficient to modify significantly the monosaccharide composition of a virgin linen cloth.
the majority monosaccharides of the samples. It should
be recalled that glucose was the only component of honey
that was detectable after the samples had been prepared
by applying the method used for this study. Given that that
monosaccharide is very widespread in nature, it cannot
be considered to be a marker for identifying honey, especially in a mixture of composition as complex as a mummification balm. The question of the use of the honey therefore remains unanswered.
The m/z (204+217) fragmentogram, was used to trace
monosaccharides (S) and to compare their distributions in
samples M2, M5, M7, and M9A with the distribution in the
linen fabric taken from point 9 (M9B) or the distribution of
the contemporary raw linen fabric (Figures 6.a – f). The
nature of the sugars present was generally comparable
from one sample to another, even though differences concerning minority components (e. g. fucose) were
observed. In contrast, the relative proportions of the
sugars did not correspond to those obtained after treating
the linen cloth. These results would thus suggest that the
balm contains a substance of glucidic constitution, in addition to the contribution made by the linen fibres included in
these samples.
It would appear that the sugar composition of each sample
cannot be due merely to the presence of linen fibres,
vegetable tannin, or honey; on the contrary, sugar content
would indicate the probable use of a glucidic-type substance that we are not yet able to identify as the state of
progress of our work currently stands.
In order to determine their nature, we consider below the
samples that, on visual examination, appear to be absent
from linen cloth (M1, M3A, M4, M6, M10B, M11, M12) and
for which such contamination is impossible (as is the case
with M13, a sample of balm lining the walls of the endocranial cavity).
1) The first hypothesis to be considered is that they are
sugars essentially originating from vegetable tannin.
Sample M11B, characterised by a large quantity of gallic
acid has a relatively comprehensive series of sugars,
including all of the monosaccharides detected in the other
seven balm samples. As indicated above, only three of
them have markers specific to tannin (gallic acid and/or
inositols). The sugars present in the last four balm samples therefore probably do not come from vegetable tannin.
2) Secondly, we considered the possibility of honey being
present, either incorporated intentionally among other
ingredients of the balm, or as a contaminant from an unrefined raw beeswax. This possibility would enable an
explanation to be given, more particularly, for the generalised presence of glucose which always appeared among
J. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
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3) After considering those two possibilities, we could then
consider the hypothesis of a gum being present among
the ingredients of the balm. For that purpose, we qualitatively compared the monosaccharide composition in each
sample with that of contemporary gums [15]. It was then
possible to exclude the presence of any of the sixteen
reference gums and in particular the acacia gums as
major ingredients of the balm.
The origin of the glucidic fractions of the samples analysed thus remains uncertain, which we can interpret in
two different ways:
– first, it is possible to incriminate the deficiencies in the
necessarily limited series of the gums and gum resins
analysed by way of reference;
– secondly, we could be in the presence of a mixture of
substances and materials whose component monosaccharides are released simultaneously during the
sample preparation step. Naturally, this would lead to
an unfavourable situation that might undermine our
identification approach based on the nature and the
proportions of the monosaccharides released during
acidic methanolysis.
3.1.3 Analysis of the wax blooms
We end the description of this series of analyses with the
samples of the whitish deposit from which spots localised
at the surface of the mummy originate. These traces
appear on various parts of the body: on the feet, the sides,
the buttock muscles, the pubic zone, and the small pelvis.
At the time of their discovery, i.e. during the autopsy conducted in June 1986, these traces were interpreted as
indicating the presence of mould which, it was feared, was
a sign of the beginnings of degradation caused by biological agents such as fungi whose attacks are particularly
formidable. Subsequent mycological study enabled that
possibility to be ruled out categorically. The examinations
under a scanning electron microscope have given us a
i
2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
228
Tchapla, Mjanelle, Bleton, Goursaud
Figure 7. Total ion chromatogram of the surface deposit scraped off the surface of sample M10. The recovered material was
dissolved in dichloromethane and analysed without further treatment. Identified compounds, listed by elution order are:
E: E14:0;E15:0;E16:0;E17:0;E18:1 E18:0; H: H25;H27;H29; H31;H33; The cerides consist of an homologous series of palmitic
esters with even carbon number ranging from 40 to 48.
detailed description of the zones contaminated by the substance. The zones are constituted by:
“[…] foliated structures that are scattered locally over a
heterogeneous substrate, and that can, at the surface of a
compact resin zone, form a relatively thick and continuous
coating which forms the whitish deposit that is visible to
the naked eye […].” It is specified, after these observations, that the white spots “cannot, due to their structure
and to their insolubility in water, represent blooms of
mineral salts (e. g. sodium carbonate coming from natron).
In many respects (scaly texture, insolubility in water, sensitivity to heat, and solubility in chloroform), the deposits
appear to be of organic type, and are probably close to
waxes […]. The whitish spots thus represent a surface
deposit due to the migration of the waxes contained in the
resin, this phenomenon sometimes being referred to as a
wax blooms’ ” [9].
,
The object of the analysis of samples M8 and M10 was
thus to verify this hypothesis.
A difficulty to be overcome consisted in taking a sizeable
sample of surface deposit without entraining the underlying balm. This operation proved to be impossible at point
M8 because of the thinness of the deposit. Overall, the
J. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
www.jss-journal.de
corresponding chromatogram is similar to the chromatogram of a balm sample, e. g. M4.
The sample taken from point M10 offered a more favourable situation: the layer of deposit was thicker, less adhesive, and localised at the surface of a smooth and relatively plane balm fragment. These sampling conditions led
us to consider that the matter collected was indeed representative of the deposit that we were seeking to study.
The resulting chromatogram (M10A) shows that this is
indeed the case: it differs significantly from the chromatogram of the underlying balm (M10B) by a significantly
more accentuated predominance of methyl stearic and
palmitic acids compared with the other classes of compounds, of which a few representatives are detected (cf.
Table 3).
The disproportion between the intensities of the chromatographic peaks of these fatty acids (E) and the peaks of the
glycerol (G) or of the fatty alcohols (A) would suggest that
palmitic acid (E16 : 0) and stearic acid (E18:0) exist in the
deposit in the form of free acids, and not in their original
form of cerides (in the waxes) or of triglycerides (in the
fats). For verification purposes, we performed a further
analysis without any prior treatment of the sample, except
for (apparently total) solubilisation of the deposit in chloroform. On observing Figure 7, it is possible to see that pal-
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2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Characterisation of embalming materials of a mummy of the Ptolemaic era
229
Table 4. Distribution of balm ingredients in different parts of the mummy. The data indicate the number of occcurence of 4 balm
components within the set of analysed samples.
Ingredients
Balm
(12 samples)
Tissue
(2 samples)
Wrapping
(1 sample)
Skull
(1 sample)
Thoracic cavity
(1 sample)
12
12
9
5 a)
1a)
2
2
2
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
Beeswax
Resin
Castor oil
Tannin
a)
Internal samples
External samples
1
0
Canopic packs
(5 samples)
5
5
5
1a)
Compound detected at trace level.
mitic and stearic acids, which are majority components of
the deposit, are present essentially in non-esterified form,
and, in a smaller proportion, in the form of cerides. We
should also note the absence of triglycerides and the presence of a series of alkanes (H) having odd numbers of
carbon atoms lying in the range 25 to 33. Together with
the cerides, these alkanes constitute the characteristic
print of beeswax as analysed without prior saponification
or transesterification [21, 22].
It is probable that such large quantities of free acids result
from hydrolysis of precursor fats. Without putting forward
any hypothesis on the real causes that resulted in their
being formed, the fatty acids making up the white spots
observed on the Lyon mummy could, after migration,
have come from a variety of origins: adipose tissues of the
mummy, fat, vegetable oil, or beeswax incorporated in the
balm. In our opinion, the latter possibility represents an
unknown quantity: given the stability of the ester bonds of
cerides with respect to saponification [20], we do not
know to what extent it might have contributed to forming
the white deposit wrongly or rightly referred to as a “wax
bloom”.
3.1.4 Variations in the makeup of the balm
depending on the place of sampling
One of the questions raised at the beginning of this study
was to determine whether, during the mummification procedure, certain parts of the body of the deceased were
given treatment that was specific in terms of the types of
the substances that were applied to them. In an attempt to
answer this question we have summarised, in Table 4,
how the four unambiguously identified substances are distributed as a function of place of sampling.
Observing this table makes it possible to note the omnipresence of resin and beeswax, although beeswax was
not detected at M3B.
The distribution of the castor oil is less clear: its presence
is generalised over the canopic packs, and inside the thorJ. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
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aco-abdominal cavity, whereas it is absent from four
external balm samples out of eight, and from inside the
cranium.
Vegetable tannin does not occur there either, nor does it
occur in most of the balm samples of internal or external
origin. In contrast, it is found in the fragments of external
human tissue, of muscle, or of organ taken at points M3
and M11. However, it is difficult to assert whether the tannin was incorporated at the same time as the other ingredients of the balm, or whether the body was subjected to
tanning prior to application of the balm. The chromatograms of the two samples taken at point M3 back up the
latter hypothesis because the gallic acid is present in a
smaller quantity (in the trace state) in the outer balm layer
than in the underlying tissue. Conversely, the reverse
situation, observed at point M11, would suggest that the
tannin was applied at the same time as the other ingredients of the balm. Finally, there is a third possibility,
whereby the internal and external parts of the body, represented respectively by samples M11 and M3, might have
been treated using two distinct procedures. In any event,
additional samples will be needed in order to establish
one of these three hypothesis definitively.
Analysis of the balm taken at point M12 raises, once
again, the question of specific treatment being applied to
the thoraco-abdominal cavity via the evisceration opening. As specified above, this sample differs in that it has a
terpenic fraction that is significantly less oxidised than the
terpenic fractions of all of the other samples. Let us, in particular, compare this result with the result of the balm filling
the occipital part of the cranium (M13). We can consider,
a priori, that these two places of the body enjoy minimum
exposure to the agents that oxidise terpenes and that are
constituted by light and by dioxygen. It is then unlikely that
the same resin placed at M12 or at M13 could undergo
chemical changes that are radically different, namely
advanced oxidation in the cranium and relatively low or
even zero oxidation at point 12 of the thoraco-abdominal
cavity. This paradoxical situation would suggest that the
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oxidation of the resin observed elsewhere than at M12
took place before the balm was applied, perhaps during
heat treatment, serving to facilitate diffusion of the balm
inside the cranium, spreading it over the outside of the
body, or else mixing of its ingredients. In which case, the
specific terpenic composition shown at point M12 would
be the sign of local addition of “fresh” resin applied on its
own or added cold to other ingredients.
3.1.5 Concluding the study
Finally, we propose examination of the preceding results
in the light of the observations and conclusions made by
the various specialists who took part in the study of the
mummy in their respective disciplines.
Our conclusions are perfectly in tune with those reported
in previous work [10, 12, 13] concerning the association of
a wax and of a resin during preparation of the balm. They
also corroborate the work conducted by Hron using carbon 13 NMR spectroscopy on sample M13 [15].
Unlike the work by Vieillecazes-Rambier [10] or by Connan et al. [12, 13] relating to samples from that same
mummy, no bitumen marker or triterpenic compound was
detected during our study. As previously mentioned, the
analytical protocol used during this study does not offer
sensitivity sufficient for the detection of fossil bitumen, nor
for the detection of traces of triterpenic resin markers that
have reached a high degree of polymerisation during ageing. These limitations of the applied methodology thus
account for the discrepancies between our results and
those reported in previous work.
Finally, the presence of castor oil and of a conifer resin is
corroborated by the pollinic analysis of the balm [18], the
result of which mentioned high representation of the species Ricinus communis and of the genus Pinus. The pollinic spectrum of the balm would also suggest the use of
substances produced by the trees Acacia nilotica and
Phoenix dactyliphera (date palm). Analysis of the pods
and extracts of bark from the former, and of the pulp of the
fruit of the latter would make it possible to test the validity
of this hypothesis and to remove the remaining uncertainties as to the plant origin of the tannin used by the embalmers, and of the glucidic fraction of the balm.
Although the mummy has been subjected to many chemical analyses, it is very likely that other substances used by
the embalmers still remain to be identified. We have presented some arguments that raise the question of the use
of a glucidic substance or of a fat of non-determined origins. Another interesting possibility concerns the presence of substances coming from safflower, be it a
coloured preparation based on inflorescences (because
of this property, safflower is also known as “bastard saffron” or “dyer’s saffron”) or oil having the same yellowishorange colour obtained by pressing the seeds. Two serJ. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
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ious clues exist that suggest that that plant was used:
firstly the brownish-orange colour observed at the nails, at
the toes [9] and at various places where the surface of the
body itself is visible through defects in the layer of balm;
secondly, the pollens from Carthamus tinctorius that were
observed in the balm, and in particularly large numbers at
the outer linen wrappings.
Following on from this work, we are considering analysing
contemporary samples of these substances derived from
safflower in the hopes of thereby supplementing the interpretation of the analytical results acquired to date.
3.2 Comparison of mummification balms taken
from various human mummies
The following results give a first series of information on
the variability of the composition of mummification balms
over time and depending on the social class of the person
embalmed. We are presenting here a few preliminary
results. In addition to the Lyon man, this work concerns
five Egyptian mummies.
It should be emphasised that the conclusions drawn from
these analyses are provisional and non-exhaustive: certain samples are going to be studied in further depth, in
particular by using analysis techniques that have additional fields of application, or that have been developed
more recently. Moreover, some of the mummies have
been subjected to multiple sampling (in certain cases,
samples reached us at various different times) and all of
those samples have not yet been analysed.
3.2.1 Analysis of the balm of the mummy of a
woman (XVIIIth dynasty) at the Georges Labit
Museum in Toulouse, France
Seven samples out of twenty two taken have been analysed so far. All of them have characteristics that are very
similar and that are illustrated by the chromatogram in Figure 8. The chemical components of the balm that we have
been able to identify can be put into three categories:
– sugars, represented mainly by mannose, galactose,
and glucose;
– carboxylic diacids; and
– saturated, unsaturated, or hydroxylated fatty acids;
The chromatogram indicates a mummification balm of
which the majority is constituted by fats whose presence
is indicated by saturated or unsaturated component fatty
acids or their degradation products which are much more
abundant (hydroxylated acids and diacids). The contribution of fats of animal origin can be supposed from the presence of odd-number fatty acids, E15 : 0 and E17 : 0.
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Characterisation of embalming materials of a mummy of the Ptolemaic era
231
Figure 8. Total ion chromatogram of the balm of a mummy of a woman at the Georges Labit Museum in Toulouse, France. Identified compounds, listed by elution order are:
D: D4 to D12; E: E14:0; E15:0; E16:1; E16:0; E17:0 (three isomers detected); E18:1; E18:0; E18:2; E14OH 16:0; E15OH 16:0;
E9,10OH 18:0 (two isomers detected); S: glucose.
Finally, the limited number of sugars detected in the samples is insufficient to make it possible to draw conclusions
as to the presence of a gum or of a gum resin.
3.2.2 Analysis of a balm sample taken from the
mummy of a child (No. 90001626) at the
Guimet Museum of Natural History of Lyon,
France (dig by G. MASPERO, on 10/10/1910
in Roda)
The chromatogram of this sample (Figure 9) essentially
reveals the presence of a series of fatty acids. The abundance of fatty acids E16 : 0 and E18 : 0 compared with diacids, which are markers of the degradation of the fats,
indicates the probable use of a vegetable oil rich in saturated fatty acids.
3.2.3 Analysis of one of the samples taken from
the mummy (XXV – XXVIth dynasty) of the
San Lazaro Monastery in Venice, Italy
Most of the external samples gave chromatograms similar
to the one shown in Figure 9. The range of compounds
detected is limited as above to a series of diacids and of
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fatty acids, among which the homologues having 16 and
18 carbon atoms (E16 : 0 and E18 : 0, respectively) predominate. The conclusions are thus identical to those
drawn from the analysis of the balm of the child mummy of
Roda.
3.2.4 Analysis of a balm taken from the mummy of
a scribe from the XXIst dynasty, at the
Museum of Natural History in Perpignan,
France
Analysis of a sample of balm taken from the left forearm of
this mummy yielded the chromatogram shown in Figure 10. The components coming from a fat are to be found
here too, namely saturated fatty acids, accompanied by
their oxidation products (diacids and hydroxy acids).
Beeswax is also identified by the presence of a series of
alcohols having even numbers of carbon atoms. On the
chromatogram, we can observe the absence of the series
of fatty acids and of hydrocarbons, which are two other
categories conventionally associated with alcohols in the
chromatogram of a wax sample. This difference in chemical composition can, in all likelihood, be ascribed to the
degradation of the wax as it ages.
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Tchapla, Mjanelle, Bleton, Goursaud
Figure 9. Total ion chromatogram of a balm sample taken
from the mummy of a child (No. 90001626) at the Guimet
Museum of Natural History of Lyon, France (dig by G. MASPERO, on 10/10/1910 in Roda). Identified compounds,
listed by elution order are:
D: D7 to D11; E: E14:0; E15:0; E16:0; E17:0; E18:1; E18:0;
E18:2; E9,10OH 16:0, (two isomers) E9,10OH 18:0 (two
isomers); Monosaccharide peaks: glucose (6); galactose
(5): mannose (7).
Figure 10. Analysis of a balm taken from the mummy of a
scribe from the XXIst Dynasty, at the Museum of Natural
History in Perpignan, France. D: D6 to D12; E: E14:0;
E15:0; E16:0; E17:0 (three isomers); E18:0; E14OH 16:0;
E15OH 16:0; E9,10OH 16:0 (two isomers); E9,10OH 18:0
(two isomers); A: A24; A26; A28; A30; A32.
J. Sep. Sci. 2004, 27, 217 – 234
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233
Figure 11. Analysis of the mummification balm of the viscera said to belong to Ramses II. Sample from the collection of the Guimet Museum of Natural History in Lyon (No. 90002013).
3.2.5 Analysis of the mummification balm of the
viscera said to belong to Ramses II. Sample
from the collection of the Guimet Museum of
Natural History in Lyon (No. 90002013)
These viscera were found in one of the four blue glazed
earthenware vases (tjab), with a Ramses II cartouche.
This vase is on exhibition now at the Louvre Museum.
They were bought from Mohammed Mohassib in 1905.
According to the physiological analysis of Dr Lortet, it cannot be the heart mummy of Ramses II considering that in
the thoracic cavity of this Pharaoh, there already was a
heart. Two hypothesis were made to explain such contents in such vases: Either a reuse of the vase and Ramses II could have been the beneficiary. In this case the
vase would have been filled with human matter simulating
the true mummified viscera of the Pharaoh. This would
explain why the vases were not found in the same place
as the Ramses II mummy (Deir el Bahari hiding place). Or
the re-use for the benefit of an individual, as was currently
done at the beginning of the Third Intermediate Period. In
conclusion this entrails mummy corresponds to a heart
from unknown origin, probably dated between the XXIst
dynasty and the Third Intermediate Period [23].
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The chromatogram of this sample (Figure 11) is very
similar to the chromatogram of the resin on which the skeleton of a princess is placed in the necropolis of
Dachour [15]. It shows a considerable massif of triterpenic
compounds, which were the majority components of the
sample. We can thus, once again, conclude that it is a
resin produced by a tree of the genus Pistacia, such as,
for example, mastic resin.
4 Concluding remarks
All of the results presented in this article illustrate the
diversity of the embalming substances used in Ancient
Egypt for preserving mummified bodies.
Analysis of the balms from six mummies from different
eras and from different social levels proves that substances as varied as fats (vegetable or animal oils, and
beeswax), resins (diterpenic or triterpenic resins), and
vegetable tannins were used.
Studying the anonymous mummy of the Lyon man
revealed a case of mummification that was particularly
elaborate given the complexity of the makeup of the balm.
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The versatility of the analysis method used for this study
has thus enabled us to identify four ingredients: castor oil,
beeswax, diterpenic resin, and vegetable tannin. In addition to these ingredients, three other substances, namely
bitumen, labdanum, and mastic resin, were identified by
other methods of preparing the samples, or by chromatographic analysis.
The analyses of the balm samples taken from the other,
older, six mummies mentioned in this chapter were not as
fruitful. For three of them, only the presence of fat has
been established. However, we must not dismiss the possibility of other embalming substances being used
because the question of the preservation of the organic
matter or the question of how it ages remain unanswered.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Mrs F. Sarlin (Touzart et Matignon, Les Ulis, France) for the loan of a GC-MS Shimadzu chromatograph used in this study, Dr S. Hron (LETIAM EA 3343, IUT Orsay, France) for the recording and
the interpretation of 13C NMR spectra, Mrs D. Labails (Muse Georges Labit, Toulouse, France), Mr R. Bourgat
(Muse d’Histoire Naturelle, Perpignan, France), the
monks of San Lazaro Monastery (Venice, Italy), Mr C. de
Vartavan (Coordinator of San Lazaro project), and Mrs A.
Perraud (Coordinator of Perpignan project), for access to
the mummies and permission to take samples from them.
Special mention should be made of Mr R. Mourer (Muse
d’Histoire Naturelle, Lyon, France), who particularly
helped us by opening all the Egyptology collection of MHN
of Lyon. Without him the our present research could not
have been fruitful.
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