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Characterization of Black Raspberry Functional
Food Products for Cancer Prevention Human
Clinical Trials
ARTICLE in JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY · DECEMBER 2013
Impact Factor: 2.91 · DOI: 10.1021/jf404566p · Source: PubMed
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Article
pubs.acs.org/JAFC
Characterization of Black Raspberry Functional Food Products for
Cancer Prevention Human Clinical Trials
Junnan Gu,† Jennifer H. Ahn-Jarvis,‡ Kenneth M. Riedl,‡,# Steven J. Schwartz,†,‡,# Steven K. Clinton,†,§,#
and Yael Vodovotz*,†,‡,#
†
Interdisciplinary Ph.D. Program in Nutrition, ‡Department of Food Science and Technology, §Division of Medical Oncology,
Department of Internal Medicine, and #Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United
States
ABSTRACT: Our team is designing and fully characterizing black raspberry (BRB) food products suitable for long-term cancer
prevention studies. The processing, scale-up, and storage effects on the consistency, quality, bioactive stability, and sensory
acceptability of two BRB delivery systems of various matrices are presented. BRB dosage, pH, water activity, and texture were
consistent in the scale-up production. Confections retained >90% of anthocyanins and ellagitannin after processing. Nectars had
>69% of anthocyanins and >66% of ellagitannin retention, which varied with BRB dosage due to the processing difference.
Texture remained unchanged during storage. BRB products consumed in a prostate cancer clinical trial were well accepted in
sensory tests. Thus, this study demonstrates that two different BRB foods can be formulated to meet quality standards with a
consistent bioactive pattern and successfully scaled up for a large human clinical trial focusing on cancer risk and other health
outcomes.
KEYWORDS: black raspberry, scale-up production, consistency in characteristics, retention of phenolics, storage stability,
sensory acceptance
However, most studies focused on the absorption of bioactive
extracts in water or bioactives as part of a meal with other food
components.16 Walton et al. reported that black currant
anthocyanins in a more viscous oatmeal matrix had delayed
and decreased absorption and excretion of these bioactives but
did not change the metabolism in a rat model compared with
anthocyanins in water.17 Ahn-Jarvis et al. showed that
significantly higher soy isoflavone microbial metabolites were
excreted in female subjects consuming soy bread compared to
soy beverage.18 However, the effects of food matrix on cancer
prevention are largely unknown.
We have developed two different matrices, a pectin-based
confection and a nectar (viscous juice), to be used in delivering
BRB bioactives in human clinical trials and tested them in a
cohort of men with prostate cancer. Food products containing
freeze-dried BRB powder have been developed to increase BRB
acceptability in clinical trials compared to the BRB powder with
water added and a nonfood bioadhesive gel used previously.5,19
Pectin confections have been found to be an appropriate solid
matrix to deliver BRB bioactive compounds and characterized
for their in vitro dissolution rate, retention of bioactive
compounds during processing, and high sensory acceptability.20
Compared to a solid matrix, liquids deliver bioactives more
rapidly to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), hastening digestion
and absorption.18 Significantly, ellagic acid was detected in the
INTRODUCTION
Black raspberries (BRB) (Rubus occidentalis) have gained much
attention due to their distinct antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
antiangiogenesis, and other anticancer bioactivities demonstrated in both in vitro1−4 and in vivo5−10 studies. BRB
chemopreventive properties are partially attributed to their
wide range of phytochemicals including anthocyanins,
ellagitannins, ferulic acid, β-sitosterol, bioflavonoids, fiber,
vitamins, and minerals.11 Among them, anthocyanins and
ellagitannins are considered as the most potent anticancer
components6,7,12,13 and are found in higher concentrations in
BRB compared to other berries.11,14 These bioactive compounds may be involved in inhibiting chronic inflammatory
processes that are now increasingly associated with the
initiation and promotion of cancer in various organs.6,10,15
The logical and theoretical advantages of a food-based
approach for disease prevention and health are several.
However, studies of specific foods have been limited by the
variation in bioactive content and incomplete chemical
characterization. Our goal is to define specific food products
derived from fruits and vegetables that are fully chemically
characterized, highly desirable, and easily incorporated into a
diet and will be stable over time and storage conditions for
long-term human trials of health and disease outcomes. These
would represent complex mixtures of bioactive phytochemicals
that, when consumed, may affect multiple targets representing
defective signaling pathways in mammalian carcinogenesis and
thus may have additive and/or synergistic activity to enhance
anticancer efficacy. Additionally, active agents, each provided at
lower dose, may reduce risk of toxicity.
The food matrix is a key factor that influences the release,
absorption, and thus bioavailability of bioactive components.16
■
© 2013 American Chemical Society
Special Issue: 2013 Berry Health Benefits Symposium
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
3997
October 10, 2013
December 12, 2013
December 18, 2013
December 18, 2013
dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf404566p | J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 3997−4006
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
Article
on a hot plate (PC-620 D, Corning, Tewksbury, MA, USA) until a
final temperature of 95 °C and °Brix from 65 to 68 were reached,
which was determined by a hand-held refractometer (Fisher Scientific
Japan Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). These processes were the same as
laboratory scale and achieved within 45 ± 3 min. When the mixture
had cooled to 78 °C at room temperature, freeze-dried BRB powder
was added and mixed into the gel. The mixture was deposited at 65 °C
with a pastry bag into molds (2115-1521 Truffles, Wilton, Columbus,
OH, USA). Confections equilibrated at room temperature (21 ± 2
°C), avoiding lights for 24 h before packaging. All of the products was
prepared in the OSU Pilot Plant in the Parker Food Science Building
with relative humidity (RH) of 0.1−3.5% and temperature of 22 ± 1
°C. Random samples (n = 3) from each batch (83 ± 4 pieces) were
obtained to evaluate their water activity, water content, and pH. Four
random batches were chosen to track the stability of bioactives with
HPLC (n = 6 per batch), rheological (n = 6 per batch), and textural
properties (n = 10 per batch).
Low-Dose BRB Nectar Production. Nectar with 10 g of BRB dose
was produced in MicroThermics, Inc. (Raleigh, NC, USA) in a 120 kg
batch according to the large-scale formulation shown in Table 1. In the
preparation, pectin, sugar, corn syrup, and water were first mixed and
heated to 95 °C with a UHT/HTST Lab Direct and Indirect
Processing System (MicroThermics Inc.), and then the premix was
kept in an extended hold cabinet to maintain a temperature above 60
°C. BRB powder was added into the premix, and an adjustable speed
drive (Leeson Electric Corp., Grafton, WI, USA) was used for mixing.
The mixture was then pumped into a sterilized UHT/HTST Lab
Direct and Indirect Processing System with 3 L/min flow rate and
pasteurized at 75 °C for 15 min according to a method adapted from
Silva and Gibbs to inactivate enzymes and the majority of molds.26
Nectar was then cooled to 25 °C and filled into 250 mL Nalgene
PETG sterilized bottles (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.) in a Clean Fill
Hood with sterile product outlet (MicroThermics Inc.). Nectars were
stored at 4 °C until use. Random bottles (n = 9) were selected to
evaluate the pH, Brix, water activity, viscosity, and bioactive
compounds with HPLC.
High-Dose BRB Nectar Production. Nectar with 20 g of BRB dose
was produced in the OSU Pilot Plant in the Parker Food Science
Building because Microthermics equipment was unable to process
such high-viscosity nectar. A 100 kg batch of nectar was prepared with
the large-scale formulation shown in Table 1. In the preparation,
pectin, sugar, corn syrup, and water were first mixed well and heated in
a steam-jacketed kettle (A5132-1 ATMOS, Hamilton Kettles,
Cincinnati, OH, USA). Once the temperature reached 95 °C, BRB
powder was added and mixed well. Temperature was kept at 95 °C for
15 min to pasteurize, a method adopted from the production of BRB
puree and strawberry nectar.24,27 After heating, nectar was cooled to 75
°C and filled into 250 mL Nalgene PETG sterilized bottles (Thermo
Fisher Scientific Inc.) with a volumetric piston filler (Simplex, AS-1,
Napa, CA, USA). A fixed volume of nectar (8 oz) was controlled to fill
into bottles. After cooling, nectars were stored at 4 °C until use.
Random bottles (n = 9) were selected to evaluate the pH, Brix, water
activity, viscosity, and bioactive compounds with HPLC.
Phenolic Analysis of BRB Products. Extraction. One gram of
BRB powder or confection/nectar containing 1 g of BRB was fully
dispersed into water containing 5% (v/v) formic acid and adjusted to a
final volume of 50 mL. Aliquots of 2 mL were immediately removed
from the well-mixed solution and then mixed with 8 mL of acetone
containing 5% (v/v) of formic acid, followed by bath sonication for 1
min in an FS3OH Sonicator (Fisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, NJ, USA)
and then centrifuged at 2000g for 10 min with a IEC HN-SII
centrifuge (Damon Corp., Needham Heights, MA, USA). Supernatant
was removed to a clean 22 mL glass vial (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh,
PA, USA) with a disposable glass pipet (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh,
PA, USA). Solvent of acetone/water (80:20, v/v) containing 5%
formic acid was used to extract the pellet twice more until the pellet
was colorless. A Speedvac concentrator (SPD 131DDA-115, Thermo
Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) was used to dry sample extracts.
Identification. A Waters 2695 HPLC with a Waters 996 photodiode
array detector (Waters, Milford, MA, USA) combined with a Waters
plasma and urine of subjects consuming pomegranate juice or
BRB powder in water.19,21 For nectar formulation, the addition
of stabilizer (such as pectin, xanthan, and agar) to the juice
would increase viscosity and thus aid in the suspension of
particles such as fruit pulp and seeds.22
Aside from the formulation, the processing and storage need
to be considered carefully to ensure minimal effect on the levels
of berry bioactives in products. For example, the manufacturing
and storage of berry jam, juice, and puree as well as canning
yielded a decrease in anthocyanins and flavonoids, whereas
ellagitannins content remained heat stable and more influenced
by the processing related to seeds exclusion.23−25 Formulation
and processing of a food delivery system for a human clinical
trial and subsequent scale up require consistency of ingredients
and final product as well as quality and bioactive retention
during storage. As such, the objective of the current study was
to assess the consistency, quality, and shelf stability of BRB
pectin confections and nectar developed for clinical trials and
demonstrate their acceptability among men enrolled in a
prostate cancer clinical trial.
■
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Standardization of All Ingredients and Adjustment of
Formulations from Laboratory-Scale to Large-Scale Production. To ensure the homogeneity of the food products for the clinical
trial, all ingredients were purchased in a single lot: corn syrup (Gordon
Food Service, Springfield, OH, USA), sugar (U.S. Food Service,
Cincinnati, OH, USA), and pectin (RS 400, Danisco, USA Inc., New
Century, KS, USA). Pectin (CF 130 B) from Danisco was previously
used in the laboratory scale for both confections and nectars; however,
due to the lack of availability for the scale-up production, RS 400
pectin was applied. Freeze-dried BRB powder was obtained from both
Stoke Raspberry Farm (Wilmington, OH, USA) (cultivar ‘Jewel’) and
BerriProducts LLC (Corvallis, OR, USA) (cultivar ‘Munger’). Mixed
BRB powder (Ohio:Oregon = 2:3) was blended using a mixer (Day
mixing, 1608, Federal Equipment Co., Cleveland, OH, USA) in the
Food Pilot plant in the Parker Food Science Building at The Ohio
State University (OSU). After mixing, the powder was separated into 4
kg/bag, sealed by using a vacuum sealer (MC-30 computer control,
Sipromac, Houston, TX, USA), and kept at −40 °C, avoiding light,
until use. According to Stoner et al.,11 the levels of 26 nutrients in BRB
remained within 10−20% of the original measurements for at least 2
years in the freeze-dried form stored at −20 °C. Scale-up production
of confections and nectars required reformulation due to ingredients’
change and processing parameter adjustments with the goal of
retaining bioactives and quality. Final selected formulations are shown
in Table 1.
Scale-up Production of BRB Products. Confection Production.
Confections were prepared in 1 kg batches, and formulations adjusted
from laboratory scale as shown in Table 1. In the preparation, water,
sugar, corn syrup, and pectin were mixed and then stirred and heated
Table 1. Adjusted Formulations of BRB Confections and
Nectars from Laboratory-Scale to Large-Scale Production
confections
nectars (two BRB doses)
composition (%)
lab scale
large scale
lab scale
large scale
BRB powder
sugar
corn syrup
water
pectin
50% (w/w) citric acid
20.0
35.0
12.0
29.5
1.5
2.0
20.0
29.5
11.0
37.8
1.2
0.5
4.0/8.0
3.0
1.0
90.2/86.2
1.8
4.0/8.0
3.0
1.0
91.2/87.2
0.8
100
100
total
100
100
3998
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Q-Tof Premier (Micromass MS Technologies, Manchester, UK) was
used for the identification of phenolic compounds. Dried extracts were
dissolved in acetone/water (20:80, v/v) containing 5% formic acid and
filtered through PTFE filters (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA;
0.2 μm, 13 mm diameter) before injection. Separation was carried out
on a Symmetry C18 (75 mm × 4.6 mm i.d, 3.5 μm particle size)
reversed phase column (Waters). The mobile phase for separation
consisted of 1% (v/v) formic acid in water (A) and 1% (v/v) formic
acid in acetonitrile (B). Initial mobile phase composition, 100% A and
0% B, was followed by a linear gradient to 80% A at 10 min, 70% A at
12 min, 50% A at 14 min, 0% A at 16 min, and returned to 100% A at
16.1 min and re-equilibrated through 20 min. Column temperature
was kept at 35 °C, and flow rate was 1.3 mL/min. HPLC flow was split
1:10 prior to MS. The MS analysis was performed in positive and
negative ion modes and calibrated with sodium formate in the range of
m/z 50−3000. Leucine enkephalin was used as lockspray mass with
m/z at 556.2771+/554.2615−. Capillary voltage was at 2.8 kV in
negative mode and 3.2 kV in positive mode. Dry gas flow was at 700
L/h, cone voltage at 35 V, and desolvation gas temperature at 480 °C.
For MS/MS analysis, the same instrumental parameters were used
except that collision energy was set to 25 eV. Standards of cyanidin 3gucoside, cyanidin 3-sambubioside, cyanidin 3-rutinoside, ellagic acid,
and rutin were run to support peak identification.
Quantification. BRB confections and nectars were analyzed by
HPLC to quantify anthocyanins, ellagitannins, and ellagic acid content.
Freeze-dried BRB powder was quantified to determine the changes of
BRB bioactives during production and subsequent storage in products.
Quantification in all BRB samples was carried out using an Agilent
1100 series (Agilent, Waldbronn, Germany): G 1322A degasser, G
1328A manual injector, G 1311A quaternary pump, and G 1365A
MWD controlled by the ChemStation software (Agilent). Chromatographic separation was performed with the same column and method
as those in the identification step. Samples were injected with a volume
of 20 μL. Absorbance at 260, 355, and 520 nm wavelength was
recorded. Anthocyanins were quantified as one peak at 520 nm with
cyanidin 3-glucoside as external calibrant24 with concentrations
ranging from 3.125 to 100.0 μg/mL. Ellagic acid was used as the
external standard to quantify free ellagic acid and ellagic acid
derivatives under 260 nm with a range of 0.25−4.0 μg/mL. Ellagic
acid and ellagic acid derivatives were represented as total ellagic acid.
Ellagitannin quantification was following the method of Gasperotti et
al.,28 in which (sanguiin H-6) ε260 nm = 63615 M−1 cm−1 and (ellagic
acid) ε260 nm = 28266 M−1 cm−1 in 88% acetonitrile and 12% 1%
formic acid in water (v/v) were reported. The standard curve of
sanguiin H-6 was derived from the ellagic acid standard curve using a
calculated factor (28266/63615 = 0.44).
Retention of Anthocyanins, Ellagitannins, and Total Ellagic Acid
in BRB Products. The retention rate of these compounds from BRB
confections and nectars was calculated using the formula
retention (%) =
to 160 °C. Moisture content was calculated as described in Siegwein et
al.29
Rheological Consistency of BRB Products. Confections were
analyzed with an AR 2000ex Controlled Stress Rheometer (TA
Instruments) with a 20 mm diameter probe. Dynamic strain sweep
(0.01−10%) at 25 °C and different frequencies (0.1, 1, 10, 100 Hz)
were first tested to determine the linear viscoelastic region (LVR), and
all samples exhibited a linear response for strain values up to 0.15%.
Dynamic frequency sweep (0.1−100 Hz) tests were then carried out at
25 °C with 0.1% strain to obtain viscoelastic behavior of confections.
Storage modulus (G′), loss modulus (G″), and complex viscosity (η*)
were recorded and compared. Changes of apparent viscosity (η) in
nectars with a 40 mm diameter probe were recorded with increasing
flow shear rate (0.001−1000 s−1) at 1 Hz and 25 °C. Random samples
from scale-up production were also analyzed. Texture profile analyses
(TPA) of confections were obtained with an Instron 5542 Universal
Testing Machine (Instron Corp., Canton, MA, USA) with Bluehill 2
Materials Testing Software (Instron Corp., Norwood, MA, USA) with
40% compression at 1 mm/s rate by 35 mm diameter probe. Hardness,
cohesiveness, springiness, and chewiness were obtained according to
the methdod of Peleg.30
2-Month Storage of BRB Products. A 2-month shelf life required
for BRB products to allow for recruitment and clinical intervention
was studied. Both confections and nectars were packaged; plastic 2 oz
cups with lids (Gordon Food Service, Springfield, OH, USA) were for
confections, and amber bags were used for each nectar bottle; the
samples were kept in the dark at 4 °C for 2 months. Fresh samples and
samples at 4, 6, and 8 weeks were collected to evaluate the storage
stability of bioactive compounds and textural properties in the
products. The number of samples used for analysis was the same as
those in fresh samples described earlier.
Scale-up Production Design for a Prostate Cancer Clinical Trial.
This clinical trial was approved by the OSU Clinical Scientific Review
Committee (CSRC) first and subsequently by the Institutional Review
Board (IRB) with approval numbers OSU-12125 and 2012C0096,
respectively. In total, 56 patients newly diagnosed with resectable
prostate cancer (average age = 61.6 ± 1.02 years) were recruited into
this study, 32 of which were in BRB functional food intervention
groups and 24 in dietary assessment groups (control). Only BRB
intervention groups were focused on and discussed in this study.
Design of intervention groups in this clinical trial, BRB dosage in
products, and total amount of processed products are shown in Figure
1. All patients signed written informed consent forms before
C phenolics
C BRB × C phenolics′
where Cphenolics = concentration of anthocyanins or ellagitannins in
products, CBRB = percentage of BRB in products after processing,
Cphenolics′ = concentration of anthocyanins or ellagitannins in freezedried BRB powder. Cphenolics and Cphenolics′ were obtained from HPLC
quantification, and CBRB was obtained from products’ preparation.
Characteristic Consistency of the BRB Products. BRB delivery
dosage, water activity (Aqua Lab Water Activity Meter series 3,
Pullman, WA, USA), pH, and soluble solid (°Brix) were determined to
check the consistency of BRB products needed for the clinical trials. A
SevenMulti pH conductivity meter (Mettler Toledo Inc., Columbus,
OH, USA) was used to measure the pH of the confection (mashed
into a paste) and nectar. °Brix was measured by hand-held
refractometers with ranges of 0−32° and 58−90° (Fisher Scientific
Japan Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Water content of confections was obtained
from thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) (Q5000, TA Instrument, New
Castle, DE, USA) by heating 15−20 mg samples at 5 °C/min from 25
Figure 1. BRB delivery dosage and total BRB products in a prostate
cancer clinical trial.
participation. The BRB intervention period for each patient lasted
20−30 days depending on the scheduled surgery day. Extra products
were given to participants in case of a need to delay surgery. Only the
sensory acceptability of the products tested in this study will be
discussed herein.
Sensory Evaluation. To obtain the overall acceptability of BRB
products, a sensory evaluation survey was developed and approved by
the IRB (2012C0096). At the end of the clinical trial, sensory tests
were conducted using a nine-point hedonic scale (1, dislike extremely;
3999
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2, dislike very much; 3, dislike moderately; 4, dislike slightly; 5, neither
like nor dislike; 6, like slightly; 7, like moderately; 8, like very much; 9,
like extremely) to evaluate the overall acceptability and acceptability of
aroma, flavor, sweetness, texture, and grittiness.31
Statistical Analysis. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and
Tukey’s post hoc test were used with SPSS 20.0 (Chicago, IL, USA) to
determine the significance in the characteristics between confection
batches. The means of rheological properties and contents of bioactive
compounds in BRB confections and nectars during storage were
compared as well. An independent t test compared differences
between laboratory-scale and large-scale products with Minitab 15
statistical software (Minitab Inc., State College, PA, USA). A p ≤ 0.05
was considered to be significantly different.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Formulation Adjustment of BRB Products from
Laboratory-Scale to Large-Scale Production. Formulations of pectin-based confection and nectar (Table 1) were
adjusted from the laboratory scale to achieve similar textural
properties as well as a lower caloric content for clinical subjects.
Pectin RS 400 used in large-scale production had a higher
degree of esterification (70%) compared to CF 130 B used in
laboratory scale (31% esterification and 19% of amidation);
therefore, pectin was decreased from 1.5 to 1.2% in BRB
confection to reach similar rheological properties as indicated
by similar G′, G″, and η* values (Figure 2). Sugar in BRB
■
Figure 3. Viscosity of nectar premix with different concentrations of
large-scale RS 400 pectin compared to CF 130 B pectin used in
laboratory scale.
m/z 285 and other reported fragment ions.32 In this study,
pelargonidin 3-rutinoside was detected in a very low content
with MS; thus, only the four major cyanidin glycosides were
quantified as anthocyanins in BRB powder and the processed
products. This HPLC method was not developed to separate
each anthocyanin well due to other phenolics including
ellagitannins and quercetin glycoside. Peaks shown with a
retention time of 7.4−8.6 min were unknown but considered as
possible anthocyanin-related compounds due to absorbance at
480 nm and MS [M − H]− m/z 651 and MS/MS m/z at 285
and 593.
Peak 2 was tentatively identified as quercetin xylosylrutinoside with [M − H]− m/z at 741 and MS/MS m/z 301.036 and
355 nm UV−vis. Peak 3 was identified as sanguiin H-6 with MS
[M − H]2‑ m/z at 934; MS/MS m/z at 935, 633, and 301 with
UV−vis featured at 260 nm and comparison with previous
reports.33−35 Lambertianin C with MS [M − H]2− m/z at 1401
and a true mass of 2803 was identified according to Hager et
al.,35 but it was detected in a minor peak at 8.57 min and
coeluted with some unknown anthocyanin degradation
compounds in this HPLC method. However, lambertianin C
was reported as one of the major ellagitannins (>32%) besides
sanguiin H-6 (>42%) in six raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.)
cultivars.28 Several ellagitannins eluted before anthocyanins
with MS of 783, 933, and 633, which were likely pedunculagin
isomer, castalagin/vescalagin isomer, and galloyl-HHDP
glucose isomer according to Hager et al.35 In this study,
sanguiin H-6 was the most abundant ellagitannin detected and
thus quantified as ellagitannin and compared during processing
and storage. In peaks 4−6, rutin, ellagic acid, and quercetin
hexuronic acid were identified with a combination of available
standards (rutin and ellagic acid), accurate MS, MS/MS, UV−
vis, and reported data.36 Methyl-ellagic acid-pentose, acetylellagic acid-pentose, malonyl-methyl-ellagic acid-pentose, and
acetyl-methyl-ellagic acid-pentose were identified according to
the accurate masses of their molecular ions and fragment m/z
(MeEA [M − H]− m/z at 315, EA at 301) by MS/MS in peaks
7−10.28,33
Changes of Phenolics during Laboratory-Scale and
Large-Scale Processing. HPLC profiles of BRB confections
and nectars were the same as that of BRB powder, but in some
cases were present at different concentrations due to the effect
Figure 2. Frequency sweep of laboratory-scale confection (circles) and
large-scale confection (triangles): (solid symbols) storage modulus G′;
(open symbols) loss modulus G″; (gray symbols) complex viscosity
|η*|.
confection and citric acid were both decreased in scale-up
versions to achieve the desired lower calorie content (from 29.3
to 23.1 kcal/piece confection). Calorie control was essential so
as not to induce weight gain during intervention. For the
nectar, calorie adjustment was not required, but pectin addition
was decreased from 1.8% in laboratory scale to 0.8% for clinical
trial so as to reach similar rheological end points during scale up
(Figure 3).
Identification and Quantification of Phenolics. Phenolics in BRB powder were identified with a combination of
HPLC-MS/MS, accessible standards, UV−vis, and reported
mass. HPLC chromatograph and peak identification information for phenolics are shown in Figure 4 and the accompanying
table. Peaks 1a,b and 1c,d coeluted in the HPLC but were
identified by MS as cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin 3-sambubioside, cyanidin 3-xylosylrutinoside, and cyanidin 3-rutinoside
with a characteristic fragment of cyanidin aglycon [M − H]− at
4000
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Figure 4. HPLC profile of freeze-dried BRB powder and tentative identification of each peak.
Table 2. Retention of Phenolics in BRB Products after Processinga
anthocyanins (%)
ellagitannins (%)
total ellagic acid (%)
confection
product
lab
large
processing scale
94.3 ± 0.3a
94.4 ± 0.98a
93.4 ± 1.5a
95.6 ± 1.9a
101.3 ± 2.3a
106.4 ± 3.3a
nectar, 10 g of BRB
lab (75 °C, 10 min)
large (75 °C, 15 min)
92.5 ± 0.3a
86.1 ± 2.7b
95.1 ± 1.0a
66.4 ± 3.5b
105.2 ± 3.2a
113.6 ± 6.8b
nectar, 20 g of BRB
lab (85 °C, 10 min)
large (95 °C, 15 min)
81.7 ± 0.3a
69.0 ± 2.8b
89.5 ± 0.8a
91.0 ± 3.6a
110.4 ± 4.2a
127.9 ± 6.2b
a
Values represent means ± standard error (n = 24 for confections and n = 9 for nectars). Means with different letters in the same column within each
BRB product are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05).
anthocyanin retention rates (94%) after processing. In addition,
there were no distinct changes of anthocyanins and ellagitannin
between laboratory-scale and large-scale confections, demonstrating consistency in the processing steps (p > 0.05). This was
mainly due to the low mixing temperature of the pectin gel with
freeze-dried BRB powder (78 °C). For the nectars with 10 g of
BRB dosage, 86% of anthocyanins were retained after large-
of processing. Anthocyanins, ellagitannin, and total ellagic acid
in BRB products were quantified according to the identification
above and then were compared to that of laboratory scale to
ensure similar delivery of these bioactives for the clinical trial.
Retention rates of phenolics in both laboratory-scale and largescale products are shown in Table 2. Confections contained 6.8
mg/g of anthocyanins and proved to have the highest
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scale processing, whereas only 69% were left in the 20 g of BRB
dose. This was related to the different processing conditions of
the low and high dose of BRB nectars: 75 °C for 15 min and 95
°C for 15 min, respectively. Higher temperature and longer
heating time were required to pasteurize the 20 g of BRB dose
nectars. Both anthocyanin retention rates in large scale were
significantly lower than those in the laboratory scale (p < 0.05),
mainly due to the longer mixing time of 10 g BRB powder with
premix at 60 °C in the hold cabinet and higher heating
temperature for the 20 g dose nectar in the large-scale
production. Anthocyanin degradation is known to follow firstorder reaction kinetics, and processing at lower temperature for
shorter time improves the retention rates.37 In addition,
multiple processing steps influence the retention of anthocyanins. Significantly lower retention of monomeric anthocyanins
was found in nonclarified and clarified juices (31 and 27%) than
in BRB puree (63%) and berries canned in water (58%).24 The
comparatively higher retention rates of anthocyanins in BRB
confections and nectars (69−94%) may be due to the use of
whole BRB powder and single mixing and/or heating steps.
Other factors such as the presence of oxygen, light, enzymes,
and pH fluctuations may also influence the loss of
anthocyanins.38
Ellagitannins were retained at 95 and 91% after processing of
confection and nectar with the 20 g of BRB dose in large-scale
production. Nectar with lower BRB dose had 66% of
ellagitannin retention rate, which was significantly lower than
those of confection and nectar with 20 g of BRB as well as that
of laboratory scale (p < 0.05). This may be due to partial seed
sedimentation in the Microthermics flow processing system
because higher BRB dose nectar would cause blockage of the
system, which resulted in the higher BRB dose nectar being
processed in the OSU pilot plant. This was consistent with
previous results where BRB ellagitannins were retained in
higher quantities in purees (65%) and berries canned in water
or syrup (79%) but not juice (only 31−33% retained), where
the exclusion of seeds accounted for the significant loss.39
Similar results were also found in blackberry processing, where
30 and 18% of ellagitannins were recovered in nonclarified and
clarified juices, respectively, whereas canning and pureeing had
little effect.25
All BRB products demonstrated above 100% ellagic acid
retention rates. Ellagic acid increased in raspberry juice after
heat processing due to better extraction from the cell matrix.40
It was possible that the heat treatment of BRB products in this
study may have improved ellagic acid extraction compared to
the BRB powder.25 Additionally, increased ellagic acid may
result from hydrolysis of ellagitannins during processing.
Consistency of Scale-up Production of BRB Products.
Characteristics of BRB confections from different batches and
nectars from randomly selected bottles were measured to
evaluate the production consistency (Table 3). Confections
were prepared within 4 weeks; 50 batches (83 ± 4 pieces per
batch) totaled 4162 pieces. The average weight of the
confections was 8.42 ± 0.35 g with a BRB concentration of
24.95 ± 0.48%. Dosage of BRB was within 5% of desired
concentration (Table 3). Physical properties such as pH and
water activity also showed consistency in the products (Table
3).
Rheological properties of confections from different batches
(randomly selected) were evaluated (Figure 5A,B). There were
no distinct differences in G′, G″, and η* between different
batches at 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 Hz (p > 0.05), suggesting the
Table 3. Characteristics of BRB Confections and Nectars in
Scale-up Processinga
characteristic
BRB
confections
(per piece)
nectar,
10 g of BRB
(per bottle)
nectar,
20 g of BRB
(per bottle)
BRB dosage (g)
pH
Aw
2.10 ± 0.09
3.44 ± 0.02
0.72 ± 0.02
10.48 ± 0.31
3.64 ± 0.02
0.95 ± 0.00
20.22 ± 0.45
3.56 ± 0.02
0.95 ± 0.00
a
Values represent means ± standard error (n = 3 per batch for
confections and n = 9 for nectars).
Figure 5. Rheological consistency of BRB products in the scale-up
production: (A) confections G′ (solid symbols) and G″ (open
symbols); (B) confection |η*| (gray symbols); (C) nectar η, 10 g
(solid symbols) and 20 g (open symbols).
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Table 4. Concentration and Daily Delivery of Phenolics in Fresh BRB Products
products for BRB deliverya
confections
(5 pieces/day)
concentration
anthocyanins (mg/g)
6.8 ± 0.1
ellagitannins (μg/g)
593.0 ± 12.1
total ellagic acid (μg/g)
113.7 ± 3.5
estimated daily amount of deliveryb
anthocyanins (mg)
285.6
ellagitannins (mg)
24.9
total ellagic acid (mg)
4.8
confections
(10 pieces/day)
nectar, 10 g of BRB (one bottle/day)
nectar, 20 g of BRB (one bottle/day)
6.8 ± 0.1
593.0 ± 12.1
113.7 ± 3.5
1.0 ± 0.03
66.4 ± 3.5
19.6 ± 3.1
1.6 ± 0.1
182.2 ± 9.3
44.1 ± 2.1
571.2
49.8
9.6
253.7
16.8
5.0
399.2
45.5
11.0
a
Average weight of products: confections, 8.4 g/piece; nectar, 10 g of BRB, 253.7 g/bottle; nectars, 20 g of BRB, 249.5 g/bottle. bEstimated daily
amount of delivery was obtained from the average weight of confections/nectars; thus, no SD was provided.
reported that enzymes were not fully inactivated even after a
heat treatment of 90 °C for 60 min.27 Therefore, to promote
retention of anthocyanins, a balance may need to be reached
between initial heat processing to achieve enzyme inactivation
(high heat for longer time results in lower anthocyanin
concentration) and stability during storage (higher heat initially
applied, less degradation during storage). Additionally, storage
conditions may also play an important role in the stability of
anthocyanins. Refrigerated storage resulted in lowering of the
polymeric color percentage of blueberry juice42 and reducing
the rate of anthocyanin degradation43 compared to room
temperature.
Retention of ellagitannins was not significantly changed in
confection and 20 g of BRB nectar during storage (p > 0.05).
Ellagitannins in the 10 g of BRB nectar decreased significantly,
but the change was <10% after 8 weeks of storage. The high
stability of ellagitannins in confections and nectar during
storage was consistent with those previously reported in other
berries.25,39 Total ellagic acid concentration remained stable
during storage of all products (p > 0.05). This was consistent
with previous reports in which ellagic acid derivatives were not
affected by thermal processing and remained stable during
storage in red raspberry jams.23
Textural Stability during Storage. Rheological properties
of BRB confections showed no significant change in complex
viscosity η* (Figure 6) during storage with similar trends for G′
and G″ (data not shown). Texture profile analysis (TPA)
showed significant decrease (p < 0.05) in cohesiveness and
springiness but not in hardness and chewiness after 2 months of
storage (data not shown). Chewiness is the combined results of
hardness, cohesiveness, and springiness. This indicated that
minor changes in cohesiveness and springiness of BRB
confections did not influence chewiness. Water content was
27.85 ± 0.55% at day 1 and did not significantly change during
8 weeks of storage (p > 0.05). However, water activity (Aw)
increased significantly from 0.72 ± 0.02 to 0.76 ± 0.02 after 8
weeks of storage (p < 0.05). This increase in water activity
indicated water migration in the gel structure, which resulted in
changes of cohesiveness and springiness but no other textural
properties. Nectars with both BRB doses showed no significant
changes in viscosity during storage at 4 °C (p > 0.05).
Sensory Acceptability of BRB Products during Dietary
Intervention. Sensory evaluation was obtained from 15 of 16
subjects in the BRB nectar group and from 12 of 16 in the BRB
confection group. Results are shown in Table 6. Nectar and
confections scored 7.27 and 7.08 in overall acceptability (7, like
moderately on a 9-point hedonic scale). Both products scored
confections were made with consistent textural properties.
Viscosity of samples from 10 and 20 g of BRB nectar was
measured with shear flow tests, and results are shown in Figure
5C. With increased shear rate, viscosity showed smaller
difference between replicates. Nectars with 10 and 20 g of
BRB had 0.15 ± 0.02 and 0.72 ± 0.13 Pa·s viscosity at 1.00 s−1
shear rate, respectively.
Stability of Phenolics during Storage. Concentration
and daily delivery amount of anthocyanins, ellagitannins, and
total ellagic acid in fresh products are shown in Table 4.
Confections delivered higher daily amount of anthocyanins and
ellagitannins than nectars for equivalent BRB doses due to
higher initial value of these bioactives in confections (Table 2).
The retention rate of these phenolics in BRB products during
storage is shown in Table 5. During storage, anthocyanins in
Table 5. Retention of Phenolics in BRB Products during 2
Months of Storage at 4 °Ca
product
storage
time
(weeks)
anthocyanins
(%)
ellagitannins
(%)
total ellagic
acid (%)
confection
0
4
6
8
94.4
87.0
84.5
83.4
±
±
±
±
1.0a
1.0b
1.6b
2.5b
95.6
94.4
95.7
93.6
±
±
±
±
1.9a
2.7a
4.8a
4.5a
106.4
101.4
100.0
106.9
±
±
±
±
3.3a
7.3a
1.4a
6.9a
nectar, 10 g
of BRB
0
4
6
8
86.1
78.9
77.9
76.3
±
±
±
±
2.7a
3.6b
3.2b
2.7b
66.4
59.6
57.2
60.2
±
±
±
±
3.5a
1.3b
2.6b
1.7b
113.6
105.0
103.2
104.1
±
±
±
±
6.8a
2.3a
7.0a
4.8a
nectar, 20 g
of BRB
0
4
6
8
69.0
68.5
66.3
65.1
±
±
±
±
2.8a
3.2ab
1.0ab
3.3b
91.0
91.4
89.9
93.3
±
±
±
±
4.6a
3.7a
3.1a
2.4a
128.0
129.4
125.3
127.8
±
±
±
±
6.2a
3.0a
2.5a
3.3a
a
Values represent means ± standard error (n = 24 for confections and
n = 9 for nectars). Means with different letters in the same column
within each BRB product are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05).
confections decreased significantly from 94 to 87% in 4 weeks
but were fairly constant (no statistically significant change) up
to 8 weeks of storage. A similar trend was observed for the
anthocyanins in the low nectar dose, whereas the 20 g dose had
no significant change until 8 weeks of storage. The depletion of
anthocyanins in the confections may be a consequence of
residual enzymatic activity, as was observed in processing of
blueberry and storage of strawberry nectar.27,41 Gössinger et al.
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surveys what factors contributed to or hindered the
consumption of BRB products, 33% in the nectar group and
20% in the confection group mentioned grittiness. Other
factors such as dose frequency in confection may have
influenced the overall liking (40% mentioned that high dose
frequency, 10 pieces per day, was a hindrance).
In this study, both BRB confections and nectars were
formulated successfully to deliver a specific dose of bioactives in
a consistent manner. After scale up, rheological properties did
not vary within a product category, and ellagitanin and ellagic
acid proved to be more heat stable and consistent than
anthocyanins. During 8 weeks of storage, high-dose nectar
showed the least changes in bioactives. Final products were well
accepted (>like moderately) by men enrolled in a prostate
cancer clinical trial. Thus, this study demonstrates that two
different BRB delivery vehicles consisting of different matrices
can be formulated to meet quality standards and bioactive
stability and successfully scaled up for a human clinical trial.
The use of these food products can prove to be instrumental in
studying the efficacy of BRB bioactives in the prevention of or
as adjuvant therapy in a variety of cancers (prostate, esophageal,
oral, etc.).
■
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*(Y.V.) Phone: +1 (614) 247-7696. Fax: +1 (614) 292-0218.
E-mail: vodovotz.1@osu.edu.
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
ABBREVIATIONS USED
BRB, black raspberry; HPLC, high-performance liquid
chromatography; IRB, Institutional Review Board; ESI, electrospray ionization; MS, mass spectrometry; UV−vis, ultraviolet−
visible spectroscopy; TGA, thermogravimetry analysis; TPA,
textural profile analysis; LVR, linear viscoelastic region;
ANOVA, analysis of variance
■
■
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