Pergamon

İ.Ö.1.binyılda, Helenistik dönem Anadolusu'nda güçlü bir krallık kuran Pergamon'un, güçlü kadınları ve kraliçelerinin kişilikleri bağlamında kısa tarihi. The Brief History of Pergamon Kingdom with the Context of Identity of Powerful Women and Queens of Pergamon.

THE CULT OF DIONYSOS IN ASIA MINOR
IN THE ROMAN IMPERIAL AGE

Making his presence, which can be traced long before the Archaic Age, deeply felt mainly in Hellas, Asia Minor and then in Rome throughout the ancient world, Dionysos, depending on the place and time, appears before us sometimes as a god of grape-wine, sometimes as a god of theatre and acting arts and sometimes as a religious power shaped according to the local needs, however, he has generally been a god of nature representing the fertility and abundance. According to the inscriptions, Dionysos was mentioned with many epithetons in Asia Minor of the Roman Imperial Age, and that he was a god of nature bringing abundance-fertility and his many other features can be observed by these epithetons. Depending on the long stated customs, the cult of Dionysos in Asia Minor survived throughout the Roman Imperial Age (especially in the II-III. Century A.D. with festivals, cult associations and structuring, artists (musicians, players, dancers) that served his cult. According to the written records, festivals such as Dionysia, Lēnaia, Anthestēria, Trietēris organized in the name of Dionysos were celebrated. Dance, music and play competitions were made in these festivals maintained by the rich citizens or directors and not commonly known cult rituals were performed. Besides the associations of synodos artists called by different names in different times in the large cities of the west, cult associations broad in scope such as thiasos, speira or cult member groups with large audience in various names were active both in worshipping and these festivals. In order to achieve this, undoubtedly, both artist associations and cult associations had to have a well organized governing structure. Names were given to the cult members according to the task taken. These members also had to pay a membership fee in order to be a member or to continue to be one. Actually, these fees were as important as the epimeletes in the mainta-nance of these associations. In addition, they were supported both mate-rially and spiritually by the Roman emperors or provincial governors. Although the paganic religious activities in the lands of Asia Minor under the control of Rome were left to the free will of the cities, they would not be strong without the respect shown for the cults of the emperors, emperor and the Roman goddess (Dea Roma). The worshipping of Dionysos could only develop with the close relations with the emperors and the Roman Empire. Correspondingly, supporting a paganic cult significant for the people, the Roman Empire gained the sympathy of the people and also kept them loyal to Rome. The deification of the Roman emperors began with General Marcus Antonius, who was wellcomed as “New Dionysos” on his arrival to Ephesos, and continued in the Roman Imperial Age. During this period the associations in Anazarbos, Ankyra, Ephesos, Teōs, Aphrodisias and Sardeis characterised Emperor Hadrianus, Commodus and Caracalla by this epitheton. Thus, they deified them by considering them equal with Dionysos. Dionysos also had common worship with imperial or Dea Roma cult besides the common paganic worship of Zeus and Dēmētēr. Like all other paganic religions, the cult of Dionysos broke down with the strengthening Christianity with which it had opposite doctrines and finally with the acceptance of Christianity as the official religion of the state. However, many features of the Dionysos cult continued to exist in Asia Minor both in Christian features and local cultures and traditions. Today it still continues this effect.

Arkaik Çağ’dan çok daha eskilere götürebildiğimiz varlığını, coğrafi olarak başta Hellas, Küçükasya ve sonraları Roma olmak üzere tüm Antik Çağ coğrafyasında etkin bir şekilde hissettiren Dionysos, yer ve zaman farkına bağlı olarak, bazı yerlerde üzüm-şarap tanrısı, bazılarında tiyatro ve sahne sanatlarının tanrısı, bazılarında ise yerel ihtiyaçlar doğrultusunda şekillendirilmiş dinsel bir güç olarak karşımıza çıkmıştır. Ama genel olarak bereket ve bolluğu temsil eden bir doğa tanrısı kimliğine sahip olmuştur. Yazıtlardan anlaşıldığına göre Roma İmparatorluk Çağı Küçükasyası’ nda birçok epitheton ile anılan Dionysos’un, bolluk-bereket getiren bir doğa tanrısı olduğu ve diğer başka özellikleri gene bu epitheton’larından anlaşılmaktadır. Küçükasya’daki Dionysos kültü Roma İmparatorluk Çağı boyunca (bilhassa M.S. II-III. yüzyılarda), öncesinden gelen bir geleneğe bağlı olarak şenlikleri, kült dernekleri ve yapılanması, kültüne hizmet eden sanatçıları (müzisyenler, oyuncular, dansçılar) ile varlığını sürdürmüştür. Yazılı belgelerden bu dönemde büyük ve zengin kentlerde hâlâ Dionysia, Lēnaia, Anthestēria, Trietēris gibi Dionysos adına tertiplenen şenliklerin kutlandığını; masrafları, epimeletes olarak bildiğimiz kentin zengin vatandaşları ya da yöneticileri tarafından karşılanan bu şenliklerde külte ilişkin dans, müzik ve oyun yarışmaların yapıldığını ve herkesçe bilinmeyen kült ritüellerinin uygulandığını öğrenmekteyiz. Bilhassa batı kesimlerdeki büyük kentlerdeki, farklı dönemlerde farklı isimlerle anılan synodos sanatçı derneklerinin yanında thiasos, speira gibi daha geniş kapsamlı kült dernekleri ya da en yaygını mystai olan çeşitli adlar altında toplanan geniş kitleli kült üye grupları hem tapınımda, hem de bu şenliklerde aktif olmuşlardır. Şüphesiz ki bunu gerçekleştirebilmek adına gerek sanatçı dernekleri gerekse kült dernekleri, iyi organize olmuş bir idari yapılanmaya sahip olmak durumundaydı. Bu derneklerde üstlendikleri görevlere göre adlandırılan kült üyelerinin, üye olabilmeleri veya üyeliklerini sürdü-rebilmeleri için ödemek zorunda oldukları aidatlar da vardı. Esasen bu derneklerin finansmanının karşılanmasında bu aidatlar, en az epimeletes’ ler kadar önemliydi. Ayrıca Roma imparatorlarının ya da eyalet yöneticilerinin hem manevi hem de maddi desteğini alıyorlardı. Zira bu dönemde Roma egemenliği altında bulunan Küçükasya topraklarındaki pagan dinsel yaşam her ne kadar kentlerin özgür iradesine bırakılmışsa da, imparatorlara, imparator ve Roma Tanrıçası (Dea Roma) kültüne gösterilen saygı olmaksızın güçlü kalamazdı. Küçükasya Dionysos tapınımı da, tamamıyla imparatorlar ve Roma İmparatorluğu ile kurulan güçlü bağlar sayesinde gelişebilmiştir. Bununla paralel olarak da Roma İmparatorluğu, halk için önemli olan pagan bir kültü destekleyerek, hem halkın sempatisini kazanmakta, hem de böylece onların Roma’ya olan bağlılığını sürdürmek amacını gütmekteydi. General Marcus Antonius’un Ephesos’a gelişinde “Yeni Dionysos” olarak karşılanmasıyla başlayan Romalı devlet adamlarını tanrılaştırma geleneği, Roma İmparatorluk Çağı’nda da sürmüş; bu dönemde özellikle Anazarbos, Ankyra, Ephesos, Teōs, Aphrodisias ve Sardeis’teki dernekler, İmparator Hadrianus, Commodus ve Caracalla’yı bu sıfatla nitelendirmişler, böylece onları Dionysos ile bir tutarak tanrılaştırmışlardır. İmparatorluk veya Dea Roma kültü ile ortak tapınımı da görülen Dionysos’un Zeus ve Dēmētēr gibi pagan tanrı-tanrıçalarla da ortak tapınımı söz konusudur. Diğer pagan dinler gibi Dionysos kültünün yıkımı da, öğretilerinin birbirine tamamen ters düştüğü Hıristiyanlık dininin güçlenmesiyle ve nihayetinde M.S. 391’de imparatorluğun resmî dini olmasıyla gerçekleşmiştir. Ancak Dionysos kültünün birçok unsuru, Küçükasya topraklarında, gerek Hıristiyanlık unsurlarında gerekse halk kültür ve geleneklerinde yaşamaya devam etmiştir. Bugün de bu etkisini göstermeye devam etmektedir."

SEG 60-1998. Religion. Dionysos: his cult in Asia Minor, Imperial period:
On the basis of archaeological, numismatic, and (mainly) epigraphic attestations, B.Öztürk,Roma imparatorluk çağı Küçükasaysı’nda Dionysos kültü (Istanbul 2010), studies the cult ofΔιόνυσος in Roman Asia Minor. After general remarks about the god, he presents a geographically arranged catalogue of the relevant inscriptions with brief comments (ph. of some texts). On 196-209, Ö. provides a register with explanations of the most important terms found in the inscriptions, and on 210/211 a list of epithets.

İnsanoğlu var olduğu en erken zamanlardan günümüze kadar her zaman kendi günün yetmediği olay ve olguları tanrı inancına bağlamış, zor durumlarda tanrısına sığınmıştır. Bu durum her kültürde ve dönemde gözlemlenen bir durumdur. Antik Yunan Dünyası’nda da işler farklı değildir. Erken dönemlerinden beri Hellenler çok tanrılı bir inanca sahip olmuşlar ve bu tanrı ve tanrıçalarına sığınmışlardır. Onlarda tanrı ve tanrıçalar yer üstü ve yeraltı olmak üzere ayrılmıştır. Bunun yanı sıra her tanrı ve tanrıçanın kendine ait bir hüküm alanı ve gücü bulunmaktadır. Hellen dininde tanrılar oldukça neşeli ve yardımseverdir. Hellen halkı pek çok kültürde olduğu gibi sahip olduğu tanrıları ile iletişime geçmek ve onları memnun etmek için kurbanlar ve adaklar adamışlar ve bu amaç uğruna sunaklar inşa etmişlerdir. İşte bu ödevin konusunu da bu sunaklardan Hellenistik Dönem’e ait olan Pergamon kentine bulunan Zeus Sunağı ya da bilinen diğer adı ile Büyük Sunak oluşturmaktadır.
Pergamon Müzesinin bu gün en fazla ziyaretçi çeken eseri, 120 m uzunluğundaki kabartmalarıyla ünlü Pergamonaltar (Zeus Sunağı) dır.Bergama kralı II. Eumenos (MÖ 197-159) döneminde prestij ve tapınma amaçlı mermerden inşa edilen bu muhteşem sunak, sanat
değeri emsalsiz heykel duvar kaplamalarıyla antik çağdan kalan anıtsal mimari yapılar arasında çok önemli bir yere sahiptir.Bu sunak aslında bir zafer anıtıdır. Bergama krallarının Galatlara karşı MÖ 165-156 yılları arasında kazandıkları zaferleri ölümsüzleştirmek için yapılmış ve Baş tanrı Zeus ile onun savaş ve akıl tanrıçası sevgili kızı Athena’ya adanmıştır. Pergamon Sunağı her ne kadar kent tepesinin en yüksek noktasına yapılmamış olsa da, kente batıdan ve doğudan gelen seyyahların daha uzaktayken bile görebildikleri bir konumdadır. Prokennessos ve Lesbos adasından getirilen beyaz mermerden yapılmış bu anıtın koyu renkli sur duvarlarının oluşturduğu arka fon sayesinde daha iyi fark edilebildiği en uygun yere inşa edilmiştir.

The surrounding landscape of ancient Pergamon is characterized by several mountain ranges, the Bakırçay Valley and River and the Aegean coastline. The accessibility of this region was vital for the city since it provided food and resources as well as trade, communication and military movements, all facilitated by a well-developed route network. Despite the importance of roads for the development and prosperity of the city, the ancient route network is still widely unexplored and archeological evidence of roads is extremely rare. This study therefore aims to reconstruct the ancient route network in the surroundings of Pergamon by combining historical and archeological sources with modern computer-aided least-cost path analyses, while also considering changes in the landscape that have occurred since antiquity. Based on these detailed results, conclusions may be drawn about the characteristics and functional diversity of the routes. Although the investigation of the route network in the surroundings of Pergamon cannot be considered complete, the results of this study already offer a valuable basis for further research, analyses, modeling and field work.

Resumé:
Pergamon was a leading cultural centre in the Hellenistic world and important new trends in architecture and planning were developed in this royal capital of the Attalid rulers. In this paper it is demonstrated that in several respects the origins of Hellenistic Pergamene architecture can be traced back to the late Classical 4th cent. B.C. This was a time, in which western Asia Minor experienced great political changes and a rich, new cultural flowering often referred to as “The Ionian Renaissance”. The Ionian Renaissance constituted in important respects a revival of the Archaic architecture of western Asia Minor and it emerged as a result of the international political changes following the 'King's peace' in 387 B.C. It seems to have started in Hecatomnid Caria, but soon after to have spread to Ionia, where it can be followed in Priene, Ephesos and other sites.
    In this paper it is suggested that Pergamon experienced a development in the 4th century BC not very different to what happened in the rest of Western Asia Minor. After a presentation of special features in technique and planning it is argued that the Temple of Athena seems to belong to the architectural milieu of the Ionian Renaissance. It is furthermore demonstrated that some masonry techniques of the Philetairean fortifications were probably invented in Karia at the time of Maussollos. Roland Martin suggested already many years ago that the monumental Pergamene terrace architecture was inspired by the extensive Hekatomnid terrace architecture. Finally, attention is drawn to the opinion expressed by both W. Hoepfner and A. Bammer that the great Altar of Zeus is dependent on the 4th century BC architecture of Asia Minor. In conclusion it may be summed up that even though the Pergamenes may have tried to attach themselves culturally to Athens, they did have strong roots in the building tradition of Western Asia Minor.

The native distribution of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus in the western Atlantic extends from Nova Scotia to Argentina. Introduced to Europe at the beginning of the 20th century, it is currently recorded almost ubiquitously in the Mediterranean and in the Black Sea. An overview of the occurrence, abundance, and ecological impact of the species in southern European waters is provided; additionally, we present a pragmatic assessment of its management scenarios, explicitly considering the dual nature of C. sapidus as both an invasive species and a fishery resource. We emphasise that the ongoing expansion of C. sapidus in the region may represent a stimulating challenge for the identification and implementation of future strategies in the management of invasive crustaceans. The impact of the invader could be converted into an enhancement of the services delivered by southern European coastal ecosystems, while mitigation costs could be transformed into profits for local populations.

ABSTRACT Motivation is a very important factor for successful instruction. This factor is especially relevant in collaborative learning contexts, where social interaction plays an important role. In this paper we present an evaluation of motivation in 139 students who were instructed under four pedagogical approaches: traditional lecture, collaborative learning, collaborative learning guided by CIF (an instructional framework for collaborative learning), and collaborative learning guided by CIF and supported by MoCAS (a collaborative learning tool). We considered the four dimensions of motivation according to self-determination theory. The statistical results show that, in global terms, students were more motivated by jointly using the collaborative instructional approach CIF and the MoCAS tool than by using a collaborative approach. Detailed analysis of the different kinds of motivation yields mixed results. Students who were instructed with CIF and especially those students instructed with CIF and MoCAS exhibited higher intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, students instructed with CIF and MoCAS were the most extrinsically motivated via identified regulation. With respect to extrinsic motivation via external regulation, students instructed in a traditional, individual way were more motivated than students instructed collaboratively. Finally, high levels of amotivation were also associated to instruction using CIF and MoCAS. In summary, our results suggest that CIF and MoCAS are associated with high levels of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, a finding that can aid in improving the learning processes, but they are also, unexpectedly, associated with amotivation, suggesting an overall increase in activation in the students who show mixed motivators.

Abstract The thermal subsystem of spacecrafts and payloads is always designed with the help of Thermal Mathematical Models. In the case of the Thermal Lumped Parameter (TLP) method, the non-linear system of equations that is created is solved to calculate the temperature distribution and the heat power that goes between nodes. The accuracy of the results depends largely on the appropriate calculation of the conductive and radiative conductances. Several established methods for the determination of conductive conductances exist but they present some limitations for complex geometries. Two new methods are proposed in this paper to calculate accurately these conductive conductances: The Extended Far Field method and the Mid-Section method. Both are based on a finite element calculation but while the Extended Far Field method uses the calculation of node mean temperatures, the Mid-Section method is based on assuming specific temperature values. They are compared with traditionally used methods showing the advantages of these two new methods.

The imminent decline of the world's oil production, its high market prices and environmental impacts have made the production of biofuels to reach unprecedent volumes over the last 10 years. This is why there have been intense debates among international organizations and political leaders in order to discuss the impacts of the biofuel use intensification.Besides assessing the causes of the rise in the demand and production of biofuels, this paper also shows the state of the art of their world's current production. It is also discussed different vegetable raw materials sources and technological paths to produce biofuels, as well as issues regarding production cost and the relation of their economic feasibility with oil international prices. The environmental impacts of programs that encourage biofuel production, farmland land requirements and the impacts on food production are also discussed, considering the life cycle analysis (LCA) as a tool.It is concluded that the rise...

On drawn reconstruction in archaeology, esp. between the late 18th and beginning 20th cents. The paper focusses on town-reconstructions as Athens, Pompei, Rome, Pergamon or Vienne and others. It investigates  the intentions of the drawing architects, their idea of the ancient town and the ways to transfer these ideas to a broader public.